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Logical positivism and logical empiricism, which together formed neopositivism, was a movement in Western philosophy that embraced verificationism, an approach that sought to legitimize philosophical discourse on a basis shared with the best examples of empirical sciences. In this theory of knowledge, only statements verifiable either logically or empirically would be cognitively meaningful. Seeking to convert philosophy to this new scientific philosophy was aimed to prevent confusion rooted in unclear language and unverifiable claims.[1] The Berlin Circle and the Vienna Circle propounded logical positivism starting in the late 1920s. Interpreting Ludwig Wittgenstein s philosophy of language, logical positivists identified a verifiability principle or criterion of cognitive meaningfulness. From Bertrand Russell s logicism they sought reduction of mathematics to logic as well as Russell s logical atomism, Ernst Mach s phenomenalism—whereby the mind knows only actual or potential sensory experience, which is the content of all sciences, whether physics or psychology—and Percy Bridgman s musings that others proclaimed as operationalism. Thereby, only the verifiable was scientific and cognitively meaningful, whereas the unverifiable was unscientific, cognitively meaningless "pseudostatements"—metaphysic, emotive, or such—not candidate to further review by philosophers, newly tasked to organize knowledge, not develop new knowledge. Logical positivism became famed for vigorous scientific antirealism to purge science of talk about nature s unobservable aspects—including causality, mechanism, and principles—although that goal has been exaggerated[who said this?]. Still, talk of such unobservables would be metaphorical—direct observations viewed in the abstract—or at worst metaphysical or emotional. Theoretical laws would be reduced to empirical laws, while theoretical terms would garner meaning from observational terms via correspondence rules. Mathematics of physics would reduce to symbolic logic via logicism, while rational reconstruction would convert ordinary language into standardized equivalents, all networked and united by a logical syntax. A scientific theory would be stated with its method of verification, whereby a logical calculus or empirical operation could verify its falsity or truth. In the late 1930s, logical positivists fled Germany and Austria for Britain and United States. By then, many had replaced Mach s phenomenalism with Neurath s physicalism, and Carnap had sought to replace verification with simply confirmation. With World War II s close in 1945, logical positivism became milder, logical empiricism, led largely by Carl Hempel, in America, who expounded the covering law model of scientific explanation. The logical positivist movement became a major underpinning of analytic philosophy,[2] and dominated Anglosphere philosophy, including philosophy of science, while influencing sciences, into the 1960s. Yet the movement failed to resolve its central problems,[3][4][5] and its doctrines were increasingly assaulted, most trenchantly by W V O Quine, Norwood Hanson, Karl Popper, Thomas Kuhn, and Carl Hempel. Contents [hide] 1 Roots 1.1 Language 1.2 Logicism 1.3 Empiricism 2 Origins 2.1 Vienna 2.2 Berlin 2.3 Rivals 2.4 Export 3 Principles 3.1 Analytic/synthetic gap 3.2 Observation/theory gap 3.3 Cognitive meaningfulness 3.3.1 Verification 3.3.2 Confirmation 3.3.3 Weak verification 4 Philosophy of science 4.1 Explanation 4.2 Unity of science 4.3 Theory reduction 5 Critics 5.1 Quine 5.2 Hanson 5.3 Popper 5.4 Kuhn 5.5 Putnam 6 Retrospect 7 Footnotes 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links Roots[edit] Language[edit] Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, by the young Ludwig Wittgenstein, introduced the view of philosophy as "critique of language", offering the possibility of a theoretically principled distinction of intelligible versus nonsensical discourse. Tractatus adhered to a correspondence theory of truth (versus a coherence theory of truth). Wittgenstein s influence also shows in some versions of the verifiability principle.[6][7] In tractarian doctrine, truths of logic are tautologies, a view widely accepted by logical positivists who were also influenced by Wittgenstein s interpretation of probability although, according to Neurath, some logical positivists found Tractatus to contain much metaphysics.[8] Logicism[edit] Gottlob Frege began the program of reducing mathematics to logic, continued it with Bertrand Russell, but lost interest in this logicism, and Russell continued it with Alfred North Whitehead in their monumental Principia Mathematica, inspiring some of the more mathematical logical posivists, such as Hans Hahn and Rudolf Carnap.[9] (Carnap s early anti-metaphysical works employed Russell s theory of types.)[10] Carnap envisioned a universal language that could reconstruct mathematics and thereby encode physics.[9] Yet Kurt Gödel s incompleteness theorem showed this impossible except in trivial cases, and Alfred Tarski s undefinability theorem shattered all hopes of reducing mathematics to logic.[9] Thus, a universal language failed to stem from Carnap s 1934 work Logische Syntax der Sprache (Logical Syntax of Language).[9] Still, some logical positivists, including Carl Hempel, continued support of logicism.[9] Empiricism[edit] In Germany, Hegelian metaphysics was a dominant movement, and Hegelian successors such as F H Bradley explained reality by postulating metaphysical entities lacking empirical basis, drawing reaction in the form of positivism.[11] Starting in the late 19th century, there was "back to Kant" movement. Ernst Mach s positivism and phenomenalism were a major influence. Origins[edit] Vienna[edit] The Vienna Circle, gathering around University of Vienna and Café Central, was led principally by Moritz Schlick. Schlick had held a neo-Kantian position, but later converted, via Carnap s 1928 book Der logische Aufbau der Welt—that is, The Logical Structure of the World—which became Vienna Circle s "bible", Aufbau. A 1929 pamphlet written by Otto Neurath, Hans Hahn, and Rudolf Carnap summarized the Vienna Circle s positions. Another member of Vienna Circle to later prove very influential was Carl Hempel. A friendly but tenacious critic of the Circle was Karl Popper, whom Neurath nicknamed the "Official Opposition". Carnap and other Vienna Circle members, including Hahn and Neurath, saw need for a weaker criterion of meaningfulness than verifiability.[12] A radical "left" wing—led by Neurath and Carnap—began the program of "liberalization of empiricism", and they also emphasized fallibilism and pragmatics, which latter Carnap even suggested as empiricism s basis.[12] A conservative "right" wing—led by Schlick and Waismann—rejected both the liberalization of empiricism and the epistemological nonfoundationalism of a move from phenomenalism to physicalism.[12] As Neurath and somewhat Carnap posed science toward social reform, the split in Vienna Circle also reflected political views.[12] Berlin[edit] The Berlin Circle was led principally by Hans Reichenbach. Rivals[edit] Both Moritz Schlick and Rudolf Carnap had been influenced by and sought to define logical positivism versus the neo-Kantianism of Ernst Cassirer—the then leading figure of Marburg school, so called—and against Edmund Husserl s phenomenology. Logical positivists especially opposed Martin Heidegger s obscure metaphysics, the epitome of what logical positivism rejected. In the early 1930s, Carnap debated Heidegger over "metaphysical pseudosentences".[13] Despite its revolutionary aims, logical positivism was but one view among many vying within Europe, and logical positivists initially spoke their language.[13] Export[edit] As the movement s first emissary to the New World, Moritz Schlick visited Stanford University in 1929, yet otherwise remained in Vienna and was murdered at the University, reportedly by a deranged student, in 1936.[13] That year, a British attendee at some Vienna Circle meetings since 1933, A J Ayer saw his Language, Truth and Logic, written in English, import logical positivism to the Anglosphere. By then, Nazi political party s 1933 rise to power in Germany had triggered flight of intellectuals.[13] In exile in England, Otto Neurath died in 1945.[13] Rudolf Carnap, Hans Reichenbach, and Carl Hempel—Carnap s protégé who had studied in Berlin with Reichenbach—settled permanently in America.[13] Upon Germany s annexation of Austria in 1939, remaining logical positivists, many of whom were also Jewish, were targeted and continued flight. Logical positivism thus became dominant in the Anglosphere. Principles[edit] Analytic/synthetic gap[edit] Concerning reality, the necessary is a state true in all possible worlds—mere logical validity—whereas the contingent hinges on the way the particular world is. Concerning knowledge, the a priori is knowable before or without, whereas the a posteriori is knowable only after or through, relevant experience. Concerning statements, the analytic is true via terms arrangement and meanings, thus a tautology—true by logical necessity but uninformative about the world—whereas the synthetic adds reference to a state of facts, a contingency. In 1739, Hume cast a fork aggressively dividing "relations of ideas" from "matters of fact and real existence", such that all truths are of one type or the other.[14][15] By Hume s fork, truths by relations among ideas (abstract) all align on one side (analytic, necessary, a priori), whereas truths by states of actualities (concrete) always align on the other side (synthetic, contingent, a posteriori).[14] At any treatises containing neither, Hume orders, "Commit it then to the flames, for it can contain nothing but sophistry and illusion".[14] Thus awakened from "dogmatic slumber", Kant quested to answer Hume s challenge—but by explaining how metaphysics is possible. Eventually, in his 1781 work, Kant crossed the tines of Hume s fork to identify another range of truths by necessity—synthetic a priori, statements claiming states of facts but known true before experience—by arriving at transcendental idealism, attributing the mind a constructive role in phenomena by arranging sense data into the very experience space, time, and substance. Thus, Kant saved Newton s law of universal gravitation from Hume s problem of induction by finding uniformity of nature to be a priori knowledge. Logical positivists rejected Kant s synthethic a priori, and staked Hume s fork, whereby a statement is either analytic and a priori (thus necessary and verifiable logically) or synthetic and a posteriori (thus contingent and verifiable empirically).[14] Observation/theory gap[edit] Early, most logical positivists proposed that all knowledge is based on logical inference from simple "protocol sentences" grounded in observable facts. In the 1936 and 1937 papers "Testability and meaning", individual terms replace sentences as the units of meaning.[12] Further, theoretical terms no longer need to acquire meaning by explicit definition from observational terms the connection may be indirect, through a system of implicit definitions.[12] (Carnap also provides an important, pioneering discussion of disposition predicates.)[12] Cognitive meaningfulness[edit] Verification[edit] The logical positivists initial stance was that a statement is "cognitively meaningful" only if some finite procedure conclusively determines its truth.[16] By this verifiability principle, only statements verifiable either by their analyticity or by empiricism were cognitively meaningful. Metaphysics, ontology, as well as much of ethics failed this criterion, and so were found cognitively meaningless. Moritz Schlick, however, did not view ethical or aesthetic statements as cognitively meaningless.[17] Cognitive meaningfulness was variously defined having a truth value; corresponding to a possible state of affairs; naming a proposition; intelligible or understandable as are scientific statements.[18] Ethics and aesthetics were subjective preferences, while theology and other metaphysics contained "pseudostatements", neither true nor false. This meaningfulness was cognitive, although other types of meaningfulness—for instance, emotive, expressive, or figurative—occurred in metaphysical discourse, dismissed from further review. Thus, logical positivism indirectly asserted Hume s law, the principle that is statements cannot justify ought statements, but are separated by an unbridgeable gap. A J Ayer s 1936 book asserted an extreme variant—the boo/hooray doctrine—whereby all evaluative judgments are but emotional reactions. Confirmation[edit] In an important pair of papers in 1936 and 1937, "Testability and meaning", Carnap replaced verification with confirmation, on the view that although universal laws cannot be verified they can be confirmed.[12] Later, Carnap employed abundant logical and mathematical methods in researching inductive logic while seeking to provide and account of probability as "degree of confirmation", but was never able to formulate a model.[19] In Carnap s inductive logic, every universal law s degree of confirmation is always zero.[19] In any event, the precise formulation of what came to be called the "criterion of cognitive significance" took three decades (Hempel 1950, Carnap 1956, Carnap 1961).[12] Carl Hempel became a major critic within the logical positivism movement.[20] Hempel elucidated the paradox of confirmation. Weak verification[edit] The second edition of A J Ayer s book arrived in 1946, and discerned strong versus weak forms of verification. Ayer concluded, "A proposition is said to be verifiable, in the strong sense of the term, if, and only if, its truth could be conclusively established by experience", but is verifiable in the weak sense "if it is possible for experience to render it probable".[21] And yet, "no proposition, other than a tautology, can possibly be anything more than a probable hypothesis".[21] Thus, all are open to weak verification. Philosophy of science[edit] Upon the global defeat of Nazism, and removed from philosophy rivials for radical reform—Marburg neo-Kantianism, Husserlian phenomenology, Heidegger s "existential hermeneutics"—while hosted in the climate of American pragmatism and commonsense empiricism, the neopositivists shed much of their earlier, revolutionary zeal.[1] No longer crusading to revise traditional philosophy into a new scientific philosophy, they became respectable members of a new philosophy subdiscipline, philosophy of science.[1] Receiving support from Ernest Nagel, logical empiricists were especially influential in the social sciences.[22] Explanation[edit] Comtean positivism had viewed science as description, whereas the logical positivists posed science as explanation, perhaps to better realize the envisioned unity of science by covering not only fundamental science—that is, fundamental physics—but the special sciences, too, for instance biology, anthropology, psychology, sociology, and economics.[23] The most widely accepted concept of scientific explanation, held even by neopositivist critic Karl Popper, was the deductive-nomological model (DN model).[24] Yet DN model received its greatest explication by Carl Hempel, first in his 1942 article "The function of general laws in history", and more explicitly with Paul Oppenheim in their 1948 article "Studies in the logic of explanation".[24] In DN model, the stated phenomenon to be explained is the explanandum—which can be an event, law, or theory—whereas premises stated to explain it are the explanans.[25] Explanans must be true or highly confirmed, contain at least one law, and entail the explanandum.[25] Thus, given initial conditions C1, C2 . . . Cn plus general laws L1, L2 . . . Ln, event E is a deductive consequence and scientifically explained.[25] In DN model, a law is an unrestricted generalization by conditional proposition—If A, then B—and has empirical content testable.[26] (Differing from a merely true regularity—for instance, George always carries only $1 bills in his wallet—a law suggests what must be true,[27] and is consequent of a scientific theory s axiomatic structure.[28]) By the Humean empiricist view that humans observe sequence of events, not cause and effect—as causality and causal mechanisms are unobservable—DN model neglects causality beyond mere constant conjunction, first event A and then always event B.[23] Hempel s explication of DN model held natural laws—empirically confirmed regularities—as satisfactory and, if formulated realistically, approximating causal explanation.[25] In later articles, Hempel defended DN model and proposed a probabilistic explanation, inductive-statistical model (IS model).[25] DN model and IS model together form covering law model,[25] as named by a critic, William Dray.[29] (Derivation of statistical laws from other statistical laws goes to deductive-statistical model (DS model).)[30] Georg Hendrik von Wright, another critic, named it subsumption theory,[31] fitting the ambition of theory reduction. Unity of science[edit] Logical positivists were generally committed to "Unified Science", and sought a common language or, in Neurath s phrase, a "universal slang" whereby which all scientific propositions could be expressed.[32] The adequacy of proposals or fragments of proposals for such a language was often asserted on the basis of various "reductions" or "explications" of the terms of one special science to the terms of another, putatively more fundamental. Sometimes these reductions consisted of set-theoretic manipulations of a few logically primitive concepts (as in Carnap s Logical Structure of the World (1928)). Sometimes, these reductions consisted of allegedly analytic or a priori deductive relationships (as in Carnap s "Testability and meaning"). A number of publications over a period of thirty years would attempt to elucidate this concept. Theory reduction[edit] As in Comptean positivism s envisioned unity of science, neopositivists aimed to network all special sciences through the covering law model of scientific explanation. And ultimately, by supplying boundary conditions and supplying bridge laws within the covering law model, all the special sciences laws would reduce to fundamental physics, the fundamental science. Critics[edit] After the Second World War s close in 1945, key tenets of logical positivism, including its atomistic philosophy of science, the verifiability principle, and the fact/value gap, drew escalated criticism. It was clear that empirical claims cannot be verified to be universally true.[12] Thus, as initially stated, the verifiability criterion made universal statements meaningless, and even made statements beyond empiricism for technological but not conceptual reasons meaningless, which would pose significant problems for science.[20][33][34] These problems were recognized within the movement, which hosted attempted solutions—Carnap s move to confirmation, Ayer s acceptance of weak verification—but the program drew sustained criticism from a number of directions by the 1950s. Even philosophers disagreeing among themselves on which direction general epistemology ought to take, as well as on philosophy of science, agreed that the logical empiricist program was untenable, and it became viewed as selfcontradictory.[35] The verifiability criterion of meaning was itself unverified.[35] Notable critics were Nelson Goodman, Willard Van Orman Quine, Norwood Hanson, Karl Popper, Thomas Kuhn, J L Austin, Peter Strawson, Hilary Putnam, Ludwig von Mises, and Richard Rorty. Quine[edit] Although quite empiricist, American logician Willard Van Orman Quine published the 1951 paper "Two dogmas of empiricism",[36] which challenged conventional empiricist presumptions. Quine attacked the analytic/synthetic division, which the verificationist program had been hinged upon in order to entail, by consequence of Hume s fork, both necessity and apriocity. Quine s ontological relativity explained that every term in any statement has its meaning contingent on a vast network of knowledge and belief, the speaker s conception of the entire world. Quine later proposed naturalized epistemology. Hanson[edit] In 1958, Norwood Hanson s Patterns of Discovery undermined the division of observation versus theory,[37] as one can predict, collect, prioritize, and assess data only via some horizon of expectation set by a theory. Thus, any dataset—the direct observations, the scientific facts—is laden with theory. Popper[edit] An early, tenacious critic was Karl Popper whose 1934 book Logik der Forschung, arriving in English in 1959 as The Logic of Scientific Discovery, directly answered verificationism. Popper heeded the problem of induction as rendering empirical verification logically impossible.[38] And the deductive fallacy of affirming the consequent reveals any phenomenon s capacity to host over one logically possible explanation. Accepting scientific method as hypotheticodeduction, whose inference form is denying the consequent, Popper finds scientific method unable to proceed without falsifiable predictions. Popper thus identifies falsifiability to demarcate not meaningful from meaningless but simply scientific from unscientific—a label not in itself unfavorable. Popper finds virtue in metaphysics, required to develop new scientific theories. And an unfalsifiable—thus unscientific, perhaps metaphysical—concept in one era can later, through evolving knowledge or technology, become falsifiable, thus scientific. Popper also found science s quest for truth to rest on values. Popper disparages the pseudoscientific, which occurs when an unscientific theory is proclaimed true and coupled with seemingly scientific method by "testing" the unfalsifiable theory—whose predictions are confirmed by necessity—or when a scientific theory s falsifiable predictions are strongly falsified but the theory is persistently protected by "immunizing stratagems", such as the appendage of ad hoc clauses saving the theory or the recourse to increasingly speculative hypotheses shielding the theory. Popper s scientific epistemology is falsificationism, which finds that no number, degree, and variety of empirical successes can either verify or confirm scientific theory. Falsificationism finds science s aim as corroboration of scientific theory, which strives for scientific realism but accepts the maximal status of strongly corroborated verisimilitude ("truthlikeness"). Explicitly denying the positivist view that all knowledge is scientific, Popper developed the general epistemology critical rationalism, which finds human knowledge to evolve by conjectures and refutations. Popper thus acknowledged the value of the positivist movement, driving evolution of human understanding, but claimed that he had "killed positivism". Kuhn[edit] With his landmark, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Thomas Kuhn critically destabilized the verificationist program, which was presumed to call for foundationalism. (Actually, even in the 1930s, Otto Neurath had argued for nonfoundationalism via coherentism by likening science to a boat that scientists must rebuild at sea[citation needed].) Although Kuhn s thesis itself was attacked even by opponents of neopositivism, in the 1970 postscript to Structure, Kuhn asserted, at least, that there was no algorithm to science—and, on that, even most of Kuhn s critics agreed. Powerful and persuasive, Kuhn s book, unlike the vocabulary and symbols of logic s formal language, was written in natural language open to the laypersons.[39] Ironically, Kuhn s book was first published in a volume of Encyclopedia of Unified Science—a project begun by logical positivists—and some sense unified science, indeed, but by bringing it into the realm of historical and social assessment, rather than fitting it to the model of physics.[39] Kuhn s ideas were rapidly adopted by scholars in disciplines well outside natural sciences,[39] and, as logical empiricists were extremely influential in the social sciences,[22] ushered academia into postpositivism or postempiricism.[39] Putnam[edit] The "received view" operates on the correspondence rule that states, "The observational terms are taken as referring to specified phenomena or phenomenal properties, and the only interpretation given to the theoretical terms is their explicit definition provided by the correspondence rules".[11] According to Hilary Putnam, a former student of Reichenbach and of Carnap, the dichotomy of observational terms versus theoretical terms introduced a problem within scientific discussion that was nonexistent until this dichotomy was stated by logical positivists.[40] Putnam s four objections Something is referred to as "observational" if it is observable directly with our senses. Then an observation term cannot be applied to something unobservable. If this is the case, there are no observation terms. With Carnap s classification, some unobservable terms are not even theoretical and belong to neither observation terms nor theoretical terms. Some theoretical terms refer primarily to observation terms. Reports of observation terms frequently contain theoretical terms. A scientific theory may not contain any theoretical terms (an example of this is Darwin s original theory of evolution). Putman also alleged that positivism was actually a form of metaphysical idealism by its rejecting scientific theory s ability to garner knowledge about nature s unobservable aspects. With his "no miracles" argument, posed in 1974, Putnam asserted scientific realism, the stance that science achieves true—or approximately true—knowledge of the world as it exists independently of humans sensory experience. In this, Putnam opposed not only the positivism but other instrumentalism—whereby scientific theory as but a human tool to predict human observations—filling the void left by positivism s decline. Retrospect[edit] By the late 1960s, the neopositivist movement had clearly run its course.[41] Interviewed in the late 1970s, A J Ayer supposed that "the most important" defect "was that nearly all of it was false".[42][43] Although logical positivism tends to be recalled as a pillar of scientism,[44] Carl Hempel was key in establishing the philosophy subdiscipline philosophy of science[13] where Thomas Kuhn and Karl Popper brought in the era postpositivism.[39] John Passmore found logical positivism to be "dead, or as dead as a philosophical movement ever becomes".[42] Logical positivism s fall reopened debate over the metaphysical merit of scientific theory, whether it can offer knowledge of the world beyond human experience (scientific realism) versus whether it is but a human tool to predict human experience (instrumentalism).[45][46] Meanwhile, it became popular among philosophers to rehash the faults and failures of logical positivism without investigation of it.[47] Thereby, logical positivism has been generally misrepresented, sometimes severely.[48] Arguing for their own views, often framed versus logical positivism, many philosophers have reduced logical positivism to simplisms and stereotypes, especially the notion of logical positivism as a type of foundationalism.[48] In any event, the movement helped anchor analytic philosophy in the Anglosphere, and returned Britain to empiricism. Minus logical positivists, tremendously influential outside philosophy, especially in psychology and social sciences, intellectual life of the 20th century would be unrecognizable.[13] Footnotes[edit] ^ Jump up to a b c Michael Friedman, Reconsidering Logical Positivism (New York Cambridge University Press, 1999), p xiv. Jump up ^ See "Vienna Circle" in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Jump up ^ Smith, L.D. (1986). Behaviorism and Logical Positivism A Reassessment of the Alliance. Stanford University Press. p. 314. ISBN 9780804713016. LCCN 85030366. The secondary and historical literature on logical positivism affords substantial grounds for concluding that logical positivism failed to solve many of the central problems it generated for itself. Prominent among the unsolved problems was the failure to find an acceptable statement of the verifiability (later confirmability) criterion of meaningfulness. Until a competing tradition emerged (about the late 1950 s), the problems of logical positivism continued to be attacked from within that tradition. But as the new tradition in the philosophy of science began to demonstrate its effectiveness—by dissolving and rephrasing old problems as well as by generating new ones—philosophers began to shift allegiances to the new tradition, even though that tradition has yet to receive a canonical formulation. Jump up ^ Bunge, M.A. (1996). Finding Philosophy in Social Science. Yale University Press. p. 317. ISBN 9780300066067. LCCN lc96004399. To conclude, logical positivism was progressive compared with the classical positivism of Ptolemy, Hume, d Alembert, Compte, John Stuart Mill, and Ernst Mach. It was even more so by comparison with its contemporary rivals—neo-Thomisism, neo-Kantianism, intuitionism, dialectical materialism, phenomenology, and existentialism. However, neo-positivism failed dismally to give a faithful account of science, whether natural or social. It failed because it remained anchored to sense-data and to a phenomenalist metaphysics, overrated the power of induction and underrated that of hypothesis, and denounced realism and materialism as metaphysical nonsense. Although it has never been practiced consistently in the advanced natural sciences and has been criticized by many philosophers, notably Popper (1959 [1935], 1963), logical positivism remains the tacit philosophy of many scientists. Regrettably, the anti-positivism fashionable in the metatheory of social science is often nothing but an excuse for sloppiness and wild speculation. Jump up ^ "Popper, Falsifiability, and the Failure of Positivism". 7 August 2000. Retrieved 30 June 2012. The upshot is that the positivists seem caught between insisting on the V.C. [Verifiability Criterion]—but for no defensible reason—or admitting that the V.C. requires a background language, etc., which opens the door to relativism, etc. In light of this dilemma, many folk—especially following Popper s "last-ditch" effort to "save" empiricism/positivism/realism with the falsifiability criterion—have agreed that positivism is a dead-end. Jump up ^ For example, compare "Proposition 4.024" of Tractatus, asserting that we understand a proposition when we know the outcome if it is true, with Schlick s asserting, "To state the circumstances under which a proposition is true is the same as stating its meaning". Jump up ^ "Positivismus und realismus", Erkenntnis 3 1–31, English trans in Sarkar, Sahotra, ed, Logical Empiricism at its Peak Schlick, Carnap, and Neurath (New York Garland Publishing, 1996), p 38. Jump up ^ For summary of the effect of Tractatus on logical positivists, see the Entwicklung der Thesen des "Wiener Kreises". ^ Jump up to a b c d e Jaako Hintikka, "Logicism", in Andrew D Irvine, ed, Philosophy of Mathematics (Burlington MA North Holland, 2009), pp 283–84. Jump up ^ See Rudolf Carnap, "The elimination Of metaphysics through logical analysis of language", Erkenntnis, 1932;2, reprinted in Logical Positivism, Alfred Jules Ayer, ed, (New York Free Press, 1959), pp 60–81. ^ Jump up to a b Frederick Suppe, "The positivist model of scientific theories", in Scientific Inquiry, Robert Klee, ed, (New York Oxford University Press, 1999), pp 16-24. ^ Jump up to a b c d e f g h i j Sarkar, S; Pfeifer, J (2005). The Philosophy of Science An Encyclopedia 1. Taylor Francis. p. 83. ISBN 9780415939270. ^ Jump up to a b c d e f g h Friedman, Reconsidering Logical Positivism (Cambridge U P, 1999), p xii. ^ Jump up to a b c d Antony G Flew, A Dictionary of Philosophy, rev 2nd edn (New York St Martin s Press, 1984), "Hume s fork", p 156. Jump up ^ Helen B Mitchell, Roots of Wisdom A Tapestry of Philosophical Traditions A Tapestry of Philosophical Traditions, 6th edn (Boston Wadsworth, 2011), "Hume s fork and logical positivism", pp 249-50. Jump up ^ For a classic survey of other versions of verificationism, see Carl G Hempel, "Problems and changes in the empiricist criterion of meaning", Revue Internationale de Philosophie, 1950;41 41-63. Jump up ^ See Moritz Schlick, "The future Of philosophy", in The Linguistic Turn, Richard Rorty, ed, (Chicago University of Chicago Press, 1992), pp 43-53. Jump up ^ Examples of these different views can be found in Scheffler s Anatomy of Inquiry, Ayer s Language, Truth, and Logic, Schlick s "Positivism and realism" (reprinted in Sarkar 1996 and Ayer 1959), and Carnap s Philosophy and Logical Syntax. ^ Jump up to a b Mauro Murzi "Rudolf Carnap (1891—1970)", Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 12 Apr 2001. ^ Jump up to a b Fetzer, James (2012). Edward N. Zalta, ed. "Carl Hempel". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2012 ed.). It would fall to Hempel to become perhaps the most astute critic of that movement and to contribute to its refinement as logical empiricism... Hempel himself attained a certain degree of prominence as a critic of this movement... The analytic/synthetic distinction and the observational/theoretical distinction were tied together by the verifiability criterion of meaningfulness... By this standard, sentences that are non-analytic but also non-verifiable, including various theological or metaphysical assertions concerning God or The Absolute, qualify as cognitively meaningless. This was viewed as a desirable result. But, as Hempel would demonstrate, its scope was far too sweeping, since it also rendered meaningless the distinctively scientific assertions made by laws and theories... The analytic/synthetic distinction took a decided hit when the noted logician, Willard van Orman Quine, published "Two dogmas of empiricism" (1953), challenging its adequacy... While the analytic/synthetic distinction appears to be justifiable in modeling important properties of languages, the observational/theoretical distinction does not fare equally well. Within logical positivism, observation language was assumed to consist of names and predicates whose applicability or not can be ascertained, under suitable conditions, by means of direct observation... Karl Popper (1965, 1968), however, would carry the argument in a different direction by looking at the ontic nature of properties... Hempel (1950, 1951), meanwhile, demonstrated that the verifiability criterion could not be sustained. Since it restricts empirical knowledge to observation sentences and their deductive consequences, scientific theories are reduced to logical constructions from observables. In a series of studies about cognitive significance and empirical testability, he demonstrated that the verifiability criterion implies that existential generalizations are meaningful, but that universal generalizations are not, even though they include general laws, the principal objects of scientific discovery. Hypotheses about relative frequencies in finite sequences are meaningful, but hypotheses concerning limits in infinite sequences are not. The verifiability criterion thus imposed a standard that was too strong to accommodate the characteristic claims of science and was not justifiable... Both theoretical and dispositional predicates, which refer to non-observables, posed serious problems for the positivist position, since the verifiability criterion implies they must be reducible to observables or are empirically meaningless... The need to dismantle the verifiability criterion of meaningfulness together with the demise of the observational/theoretical distinction meant that logical positivism no longer represented a rationally defensible position. At least two of its defining tenets had been shown to be without merit. Since most philosophers believed that Quine had shown the analytic/synthetic distinction was also untenable, moreover, many concluded that the enterprise had been a total failure. Among the important benefits of Hempel s critique, however, was the production of more general and flexible criteria of cognitive significance... Hempel suggested multiple criteria for assessing the cognitive significance of different theoretical systems, where significance is not categorical but rather a matter of degree... The elegance of Hempel s study laid to rest any lingering aspirations for simple criteria of cognitive significance and signaled the demise of logical positivism as a philosophical movement. Precisely what remained, however, was in doubt. Presumably, anyone who rejected one or more of the three principles defining positivism—the analytic/synthetic distinction, the observational/theoretical distinction, and the verifiability criterion of significance—was not a logical positivist. The precise outlines of its philosophical successor, which would be known as "logical empiricism", were not entirely evident. Perhaps this study came the closest to defining its intellectual core. Those who accepted Hempel s four criteria and viewed cognitive significance as a matter of degree were members, at least in spirit. But some new problems were beginning to surface with respect to Hempel s covering-law explication of explanation and old problems remained from his studies of induction, the most remarkable of which was known as "the paradox of confirmation". ^ Jump up to a b Ayer, Language, Truth and Logic, 1946, p 50–51. ^ Jump up to a b Novick, That Noble Dream (Cambridge U P, 1988), p 546. ^ Jump up to a b James Woodward, "Scientific explanation"—sec 1 "Background and introduction", in Zalta EN, ed,The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Winter 2011 edn ^ Jump up to a b James Woodward, "Scientific explanation"—Article overview, Zalta EN, ed, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Winter 2011 edn ^ Jump up to a b c d e f Suppe, Structure of Scientific Theories (U Illinois P, 1977), pp 619–21. Jump up ^ Eleonora Montuschi, Objects in Social Science (London New York Continuum, 2003), pp 61–62. Jump up ^ Bechtel, Philosophy of Science (Lawrence Erlbaum, 1988), p 25. Jump up ^ Bechtel, Philosophy of Science (Lawrence Erlbaum, 1988), pp 27–28. Jump up ^ Georg Hendrik von Wright, Explanation and Understanding (Ithaca NY Cornell University Press, 1971), p 11. Jump up ^ Stuart Glennan, p 276, in Sarkar S Pfeifer J, eds, The Philosophy of Science An Encyclopedia, Volume 1 A–M (New York Routledge, 2006). Jump up ^ Manfred Riedel, pp 3–4, in Manninen J Tuomela R, eds, Essays on Explanation and Understanding Studies in the Foundation of Humanities and Social Sciences (Dordrecht D Reidel Publishing, 1976). Jump up ^ For a review of "unity of science" to, see Gregory Frost-Arnold, "The large-scale structure of logical empiricism Unity of science and the rejection of metaphysics". Jump up ^ John Vicker (2011). Edward N Zalta, ed. "The problem of induction". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2011 ed.). This initial formulation of the criterion was soon seen to be too strong; it counted as meaningless not only metaphysical statements but also statements that are clearly empirically meaningful, such as that all copper conducts electricity and, indeed, any universally quantified statement of infinite scope, as well as statements that were at the time beyond the reach of experience for technical, and not conceptual, reasons, such as that there are mountains on the back side of the moon. These difficulties led to modification of the criterion The latter to allow empirical verification if not in fact then at least in principle, the former to soften verification to empirical confirmation. Jump up ^ Uebel, Thomas (2008). Edward N. Zalta, ed. "Vienna Circle". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2008 ed.). What Carnap later called the "liberalization of empiricism" was underway and different camps became discernible within the Circle... In the first place, this liberalization meant the accommodation of universally quantified statements and the return, as it were, to salient aspects of Carnap s 1928 conception. Everybody had noted that the Wittgensteinian verificationist criterion rendered universally quantified statements meaningless. Schlick (1931) thus followed Wittgenstein s own suggestion to treat them instead as representing rules for the formation of verifiable singular statements. (His abandonment of conclusive verifiability is indicated only in Schlick 1936a.) A second element that began to do so soon was the recognition of the problem of the irreducibility of disposition terms to observation terms... A third element was that disagreement arose as to whether the in-principle verifiability or support turned on what was merely logically possible or on what was nomologically possible, as a matter of physical law etc. A fourth element, finally, was that differences emerged as to whether the criterion of significance was to apply to all languages or whether it was to apply primarily to constructed, formal languages. Schlick retained the focus on logical possibility and natural languages throughout, but Carnap had firmly settled his focus on nomological possibility and constructed languages by the mid-thirties. Concerned with natural language, Schlick (1932, 1936a) deemed all statements meaningful for which it was logically possible to conceive of a procedure of verification; concerned with constructed languages only, Carnap (1936-37) deemed meaningful only statements for whom it was nomologically possible to conceive of a procedure of confirmation of disconfirmation. Many of these issues were openly discussed at the Paris congress in 1935. Already in 1932 Carnap had sought to sharpen his previous criterion by stipulating that those statements were meaningful that were syntactically well-formed and whose non-logical terms were reducible to terms occurring in the basic observational evidence statements of science. While Carnap s focus on the reduction of descriptive terms allows for the conclusive verification of some statements, his criterion also allowed universally quantified statements to be meaningful, provided they were syntactically and terminologically correct (1932a, §2). It was not until one of his Paris addresses, however, that Carnap officially declared the meaning criterion to be mere confirmability. Carnap s new criterion required neither verification nor falsification but only partial testability so as now to include not only universal statements but also the disposition statements of science... Though plausible initially, the device of introducing non-observational terms in this way gave rise to a number of difficulties which impugned the supposedly clear distinctions between logical and empirical matters and analytic and synthetic statements (Hempel 1951). Independently, Carnap himself (1939) soon gave up the hope that all theoretical terms of science could be related to an observational base by such reduction chains. This admission raised a serious problem for the formulation of a meaning criterion how was one to rule out unwanted metaphysical claims while admitting as significant highly abstract scientific claims? ^ Jump up to a b Hilary Putnam (1985). Philosophical Papers Volume 3, Realism and Reason. Philosophical Papers. Cambridge University Press. p. 184. ISBN 9780521313940. LCCN lc82012903. Jump up ^ W V O Quine, "Two dogmas of empiricism", Philosophical Review 1951;60 20-43, collected in Quine, From a Logical Point of View (Cambridge MA Harvard University Press, 1953). Jump up ^ Novick, That Noble Dream (Cambridge U P, 1988), p 527. Jump up ^ Popper then denies that science requires inductive inference or that it actually exists, although most philosophers believe it exists and that science requires it [Samir Okasha, The Philosophy of Science A Very Short Introduction (NY OUP, 2002), p 23]. ^ Jump up to a b c d e Novick, That Noble Dream (Cambridge U P, 1988), pp 526-27. Jump up ^ Hilary Putnam, "Problems with the observational/theoretical distinction", in Scientific Inquiry, Robert Klee, ed (New York, USA Oxford University Press, 1999), pp 25-29. Jump up ^ Nicholas G Fotion (1995). Ted Honderich, ed. The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford Oxford University Press. p. 508. ISBN 0-19-866132-0. ^ Jump up to a b Hanfling, Oswald (2003). "Logical Positivism". Routledge History of Philosophy. Routledge. pp. 193f. Jump up ^ "Ayer on Logical Positivism Section 4". 6 30. Jump up ^ Stahl et al, Webs of Reality (Rutgers U P, 2002), p 180. Jump up ^ Hilary Putnam, "What is realism?", in Jarrett Leplin, ed, Scientific Realism (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London University of California Press, 1984), p 140. Jump up ^ Ruth Lane, "Positivism, scientific realism and political science Recent developments in the philosophy of science", Journal of Theoretical Politics, 1996 Jul8(3) 361-82, abstract. Jump up ^ Friedman, Reconsidering Logical Positivism (Cambridge, 1999), p 1. ^ Jump up to a b Friedman, Reconsidering Logical Positivism (Cambridge, 1999), p 2.
https://w.atwiki.jp/objcmemo/pages/65.html
_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/ エラーメッセージ _/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/_/ error #include expects "xxx.h" or xxx.h の後は "xxx.h" か xxx.h と書く error default label not within a switch statement default が switch 文の外にある(switch 文を早く閉じてしまった可能性) error else without a previous if if がないのに else がある error for loop initial declaration used outside C99 mode for 文の中で制御変数が宣言されている(C++ や Java との混同) error xxx has no member named yyy 構造体 xxx には yyy というメンバーはない error xxx redeclared as different kind of symbol xxx が違う種類のシンボルとして二重に宣言されている error xxx undeclared (first use in this function) xxx が宣言されていない error xxx undeclared here (not in a function) xxx が宣言されていない error aggregate value used where a float was expected 浮動小数点型が来るはずのところに，構造体(集合体)が使われている error argument xxx doesn t match prototype xxx の型が関数プロトタイプと一致しない error array size missing in xxx xxx に配列のサイズが無い error array subscript is not an integer 配列の添字の型が整数型じゃない error array type has incomplete element type 配列の型が不完全 error assignment of read-only location (const 修飾子がついていて)読出専用のものに代入しようとしている error assignment of read-only member xxx (const 修飾子がついている構造体の)読出専用のメンバ xxx に代入しようとしている error assignment of read-only variable xxx (const 修飾子がついていて)読出専用の変数 xxx に代入しようとしている error break statement not within loop or switch 繰返しや switch 文以外の場所で break を使っている error called object xxx is not a function xxx は関数じゃないのに関数呼出しのように使っている error cannot convert to a pointer type ポインタ型へは変換できない error case label not within a switch statement switch 文の外で case を使っている(switch 文の括弧の対応がおかしい可能性大) error conflicting type qualifiers for xxx xxx の型修飾子に矛盾がある error conflicting types for xxx xxx の型に矛盾がある error conversion to non-scalar type requested スカラ型以外のものに型変換しようとしている error declaration for parameter xxx but no such parameter xxx の型の引数を宣言しているけど，そんな型は知らない error decrement of read-only location (const 修飾子がついていて)読出専用のものをデクリメントしようとしている error duplicate case value (switch 文の中の) case の値が重複している error duplicate member xxx 構造体のメンバの xxx が重複している error empty character constant 文字定数の中が空っぽ error empty filename in #include の後にファイル名が書かれていない error expected xxx at end of input プログラムの最後に xxx があるはずだが．．． error expected yyy before xxx (token) xxx の前に yyy があるはずだが．．． error expected xxx before numeric constant 数値定数の前に xxx があるはずだが．．． error expected xxx before string constant 文字定数の前に xxx があるはずだが．．． error expected declaration or statement at end of input まだ続いているはずだけどプログラムが終っちゃった(閉じ括弧をつけ忘れていた場合に起こりやすい) error expected declaration specifiers before xxx (token) xxx の前には宣言があるはずだが．．．(関数定義の "{" を忘れたときに起こりやすい) error expected declaration specifiers or ... before xxx (token) xxx の前には型に相当するものが来るはずだが．．． error expected expression at end of input プログラムの最後には式があるはずだが．．． error expected expression before xxx (token) xxx の前には式があるはずだが．．． error expected identifier at end of input プログラムの最後には識別子が来るはずだが．．． error expected identifier before xxx (token) xxx の前には識別子が来るはずだが．．． error expected identifier before numeric constant 数値定数の前には識別子が来るはずだが．．． error expected specifier-qualifier-list before xxx (token) xxx の前には型のリストが来るはずだが．．． error format string argument not a string type 書式指定の文字列が与えられていない error function definition declared typedef 関数定義に typedef がついてる (typedef の最後のセミコロンを忘れている場合など) error incompatible type for argument NNN of xxx 関数 xxx の NNN 番目の引数の型が(仮引数と実引数とで)合わない error incompatible types in assignment 代入で(左辺と右辺の)型が合わない error incompatible types in initialization 変数の初期化で(変数と値の)型が合わない error incompatible types in return returnで返す値の型と関数プロトタイプの戻り値の型が一致しない error increment of read-only location (const 修飾子がついていて)読出専用のものをインクリメントしようとしている error increment of read-only member xxx (const 修飾子がついている構造体の)読出専用のメンバ xxx をインクリメントしようとしている error increment of read-only variable xxx (const 修飾子がついていて)読出専用の変数 xxx をインクリメントしようとしている error initializer element is not constant 初期化式が定数式じゃない error invalid initializer 初期化式の不正 error invalid lvalue in assignment 代入の左辺が変数じゃない error invalid lvalue in decrement デクリメント演算子(--)が変数じゃないものに適用されている error invalid lvalue in increment インクリメント演算子(++)が変数じゃないものに適用されている error invalid lvalue in unary アドレス演算子( )が変数じゃないものに適用されている error invalid operands to binary xxx 二項演算子 xxx の引数の不正 error invalid preprocessing directive #xxx そんな #xxx なんて知らない(#include などの綴り間違いの可能性大) error invalid suffix "xxx" on integer constant 整数の後に xxx が付いている error invalid type argument of - ポインタから構造体のメンバを指定する - の使い方の誤り error invalid type argument of unary * 間接演算子(*)の使い型の誤り(*がポインタじゃないものに付いている) error invalid use of void expression キーワード void の使い方の誤り error label xxx used but not defined xxx というラベルを定義せずに使っている error lvalue required as decrement operand デクリメント演算子(--)の引数は変数じゃなきゃダメ error lvalue required as increment operand インクリメント演算子(++)の引数は変数じゃなきゃダメ error lvalue required as left operand of assignment 代入演算子(=)の左は変数じゃなきゃダメ error lvalue required as unary operand アドレス演算子( )の右に来るのは変数じゃなきゃダメ error missing terminating " character 文字列定数の終わりの「"」がない error missing terminating character 文字定数の終わりの「 」がない error multiple default labels in one switch switch 文に default が複数ある error number of arguments doesn t match prototype 関数プロトタイプ宣言と引数の数が違う error old-style parameter declarations in prototyped function definition 関数の引数リストの宣言の仕方が古いスタイル error parameter name omitted 引数名が省略されている error parameter NNN ( xxx ) has incomplete type NNN 番目の引数 xxx の型が不完全 error previous declaration of xxx was here xxx の前の宣言はココ (conflicting types for xxx とペアで出てくる) error previous definition of xxx was here xxx の前の定義はココ(関数を二重に定義しているような場合) error previous implicit declaration of xxx was here xxx の前の暗黙の宣言はココ error redeclaration of xxx with no linkage xxx が二重に宣言されている error redeclaration of enumerator xxx 列挙型 xxx が二重に宣言されている error redefinition of xxx xxx が二重に定義されている error redefinition of parameter xxx 仮引数 xxx が二重に定義されている error redefinition of typedef xxx xxx が二重に typedef されている error request for member xxx in something not a structure or union 構造体でないのに xxx というメンバを使っている error size of array xxx is too large 配列 xxx の要素数が大きすぎ error stray \xxx in program プログラム中で，文字列やコメント以外の場所に全角文字を使用した際によく出るエラー． 特に，全角空白を使用すると，見た目ではわからないので発見が難しいが， このエラーメッセージに示されている行を探すと見つかるはず． error subscripted value is neither array nor pointer 配列で(もポインタでも)ないものに添字([i]など)を使用している error switch quantity not an integer switch 文の()の中に整数以外のものが来ている(switch 文で扱えるのは値が整数になるもののみ) error syntax error at end of input プログラムの最後に構文エラーあり error syntax error before xxx (token) xxx の前に構文エラーあり error syntax error before numeric constant 数値定数の前に構文エラーあり error syntax error before string constant 文字列定数の前に構文エラーあり error too few arguments to function xxx 関数 xxx の呼び出しの際の引数(実引数)が少なすぎ error too many arguments to function xxx 関数 xxx の呼び出しの際の引数(実引数)が多すぎ error too many decimal points in number 数値に小数点が多すぎ(2個以上ついてる) error two or more data types in declaration specifiers 型宣言において複数の型が指定されている error unrecognized command line option "xxx" cc コマンドのオプションで xxx なんてのは知らない error unterminated comment コメントが終了していない error used struct type value where scalar is required (int 型や double 型などの)スカラ値が来なきゃいけないところに構造体を使っている error variable or field xxx declared void 変数 xxx の型が void 型になってる error variable-sized object may not be initialized 可変長のオブジェクトが初期化されていない可能性 error void value not ignored as it ought to be void 型(の関数の戻り値)を使おうとしている error wrong type argument to decrement デクリメント演算子(--)の引数の型が違う error wrong type argument to increment インクリメント演算子(++)の引数の型が違う error wrong type argument to unary exclamation mark 否定演算子(!)の引数の型が違う 【警告メッセージ】 warning "/*" within comment コメント中に /* があるけど．．． warning "XXX" redefined XXX を #define で重複して定義している warning return with a value, in function returning void 戻り値の型が void 型の関数なのに return で値を返している warning struct xxx declared inside parameter list struct xxx の宣言が引数リストの中で行なわれている warning xxx is used uninitialized in this function この関数内で xxx が初期化しないまま使われている warning xxx may be used uninitialized in this function この関数内で xxx が初期化しないまま使われている warning array subscript has type char 配列の添字の型が char 型(文字型)になっている warning assignment discards qualifiers from pointer target type 代入の際，代入元にあった型修飾子が捨てられた warning assignment from incompatible pointer type 互換性のないポインタ型からの代入 warning assignment makes integer from pointer without a cast ポインタを整数に(キャストなしで)代入しようとしている warning assignment makes pointer from integer without a cast 整数をポインタに(キャストなしで)代入しようとしている warning backslash and newline separated by space バックスラッシュ(\)と改行の間に空白がある （行が長すぎるとき，見やすくなるように改行して次の行に続けて書くんだけど，プログラムとしては 一行として扱って欲しい場合がある．そういった場合，前の行の行末にバックスラッシュ(\)を入れてそ の直後で改行してやれば，後続の行は「継続行」となり一行として扱ってくれる．ところが，バックス ラッシュと改行の間に空白文字などの目に見えない余計なものが入っていると継続行とはならないの で，それに対する注意．） warning cast from pointer to integer of different size ポインタをサイズの異なる整数にキャストしている warning character constant too long for its type 文字定数が長すぎ(文字定数と文字列定数の混同？) warning comparison between pointer and integer ポインタと整数を比較している warning comparison is always false due to limited range of data type データ型の範囲の制限により，比較結果はつねに偽(false)になる warning comparison is always true due to limited range of data type データ型の範囲の制限により，比較結果はつねに真(true)になる warning comparison of distinct pointer types lacks a cast 異ったポインタ型を比較している warning conflicting types for xxx xxx の型に矛盾がある warning conflicting types for built-in function xxx 組込み関数 xxx の型に矛盾がある warning control reaches end of non-void function 値を返す関数なのに，return なしに関数の終わりまで来ちゃった warning data definition has no type or storage class データの定義に型or記憶クラスがない(typedef struct ... のあたりで間違えている可能性大) warning excess elements in scalar initializer 初期化式中の要素が多すぎ warning format %xxx expects type yyy , but argument NNN has type zzz printf の書式の %xxx には yyy の型を与えなきゃいけないけど，NNN 番目の引数で zzz の型を与えている warning function returns address of local variable (関数内で宣言した)局所変数のアドレスを return で返している warning implicit declaration of function xxx 関数 xxx の暗黙のプロトタイプ宣言 warning incompatible implicit declaration of built-in function xxx 関数 xxx の暗黙のプロトタイプ宣言が不整合(プロトタイプ宣言を忘れたときに起こる) warning initialization from incompatible pointer type ポインタ変数の初期化式が不整合 warning initialization makes integer from pointer without a cast 整数の変数の初期化式にポインタを与えている warning initialization makes pointer from integer without a cast ポインタ変数の初期化式に整数を与えている warning initializer-string for array of chars is too long 文字配列の初期化用の文字列が長すぎ(配列の長さを超えている) warning left-hand operand of comma expression has no effect カンマ演算子(,)の左側は何の効果もない warning missing whitespace after the macro name #define する記号名の後には空白文字(スペース記号，タブ，改行など)が必要 warning multi-character character constant 文字列定数なのに複数文字がある ( \0 と書くべきところを /0 と書いてしまった場合など) warning no newline at end of file ファイルの最後に改行がない warning no semicolon at end of struct or union 構造体の定義の最後にセミコロンがない warning overflow in implicit constant conversion 定数の暗黙の変換でオーバーフローが起きた warning parameter names (without types) in function declaration 関数の引数が名前だけで型が指定されていない(int x と書くべきところを x とだけ書いた場合など) warning passing argument NNN of xxx discards qualifiers from pointer target type 関数 xxx の NNN 番目の引数で渡したポインタの修飾子(qualifires)を放棄した warning passing argument NNN of xxx from incompatible pointer type 関数 xxx の NNN 番目の引数に一致しないポインタ型が渡されている warning passing argument NNN of xxx makes integer from pointer without a cast 関数 xxx の NNN 番目の引数でポインタが要求されているところに整数を渡した warning passing argument NNN of xxx makes pointer from integer without a cast 関数 xxx の NNN 番目の引数に渡した整数がキャストなしでポインタにされている (仮引数はポインタなのに実引数として整数を渡している) warning previous declaration of xxx was here xxx の前の宣言はココ (conflicting types for xxx とペアで出てくる) warning previous implicit declaration of xxx was here xxx の前の暗黙の宣言はココ warning return from incompatible pointer type 型の一致しないポインタ型を返そうとしている warning return makes integer from pointer without a cast 整数を返すべきところでポインタを返している warning return makes pointer from integer without a cast ポインタを返すべきところで整数を返している warning return type defaults to int (戻り値の型がないので)戻り値の型をint型にした warning return type of main is not int main 関数の戻り値の型が int になってない warning statement with no effect この文は何の効果もない(値を計算しているだけで捨てていて，何にも代入していない可能性大) warning suggest explicit braces to avoid ambiguous else (if 文の入れ子で) else の範囲が曖昧なので，明示的に括弧({ と })をつけた方が良い warning suggest parentheses around assignment used as truth value 代入した値を条件式の中で使う場合は括弧で囲む方が良い(== を = に間違えた場合などに発生) warning the `gets function is dangerous and should not be used. 関数 gets は危険なので使うべきじゃない warning too few arguments for format printf 中にある(%d などの)書式指定の数に比べて，引数で与えたものの数が少なすぎ warning too many arguments for format printf 中にある(%d などの)書式指定の数に比べて，引数で与えたものの数が多すぎ warning unknown escape sequence \xxx \xxx なんていうエスケープ文字は知らない warning unused variable xxx 変数 xxx を宣言してるけど使っていない warning value computed is not used 計算した値を使っていない 【その他】 filename.c (.text+0x???) undefined reference to xxx collect2 ld returned 1 exit status xxx という関数を使っているが，作成されていないときに起きるエラー 本当に作っていない場合の他に，関数名を間違えている場合にも起きる テキスト形式の添付ファイル［スキャンして保存 | Yahoo!ボックスに保存］ 【エラーメッセージ】 error #include expects "xxx.h" or xxx.h の後は "xxx.h" か xxx.h と書く error default label not within a switch statement default が switch 文の外にある(switch 文を早く閉じてしまった可能性) error else without a previous if if がないのに else がある error for loop initial declaration used outside C99 mode for 文の中で制御変数が宣言されている(C++ や Java との混同) error xxx has no member named yyy 構造体 xxx には yyy というメンバーはない error xxx redeclared as different kind of symbol xxx が違う種類のシンボルとして二重に宣言されている error xxx undeclared (first use in this function) xxx が宣言されていない error xxx undeclared here (not in a function) xxx が宣言されていない error aggregate value used where a float was expected 浮動小数点型が来るはずのところに，構造体(集合体)が使われている error argument xxx doesn t match prototype xxx の型が関数プロトタイプと一致しない error array size missing in xxx xxx に配列のサイズが無い error array subscript is not an integer 配列の添字の型が整数型じゃない error array type has incomplete element type 配列の型が不完全 error assignment of read-only location (const 修飾子がついていて)読出専用のものに代入しようとしている error assignment of read-only member xxx (const 修飾子がついている構造体の)読出専用のメンバ xxx に代入しようとしている error assignment of read-only variable xxx (const 修飾子がついていて)読出専用の変数 xxx に代入しようとしている error break statement not within loop or switch 繰返しや switch 文以外の場所で break を使っている error called object xxx is not a function xxx は関数じゃないのに関数呼出しのように使っている error cannot convert to a pointer type ポインタ型へは変換できない error case label not within a switch statement switch 文の外で case を使っている(switch 文の括弧の対応がおかしい可能性大) error conflicting type qualifiers for xxx xxx の型修飾子に矛盾がある error conflicting types for xxx xxx の型に矛盾がある error conversion to non-scalar type requested スカラ型以外のものに型変換しようとしている error declaration for parameter xxx but no such parameter xxx の型の引数を宣言しているけど，そんな型は知らない error decrement of read-only location (const 修飾子がついていて)読出専用のものをデクリメントしようとしている error duplicate case value (switch 文の中の) case の値が重複している error duplicate member xxx 構造体のメンバの xxx が重複している error empty character constant 文字定数の中が空っぽ error empty filename in #include の後にファイル名が書かれていない error expected xxx at end of input プログラムの最後に xxx があるはずだが．．． error expected yyy before xxx (token) xxx の前に yyy があるはずだが．．． error expected xxx before numeric constant 数値定数の前に xxx があるはずだが．．． error expected xxx before string constant 文字定数の前に xxx があるはずだが．．． error expected declaration or statement at end of input まだ続いているはずだけどプログラムが終っちゃった(閉じ括弧をつけ忘れていた場合に起こりやすい) error expected declaration specifiers before xxx (token) xxx の前には宣言があるはずだが．．．(関数定義の "{" を忘れたときに起こりやすい) error expected declaration specifiers or ... before xxx (token) xxx の前には型に相当するものが来るはずだが．．． error expected expression at end of input プログラムの最後には式があるはずだが．．． error expected expression before xxx (token) xxx の前には式があるはずだが．．． error expected identifier at end of input プログラムの最後には識別子が来るはずだが．．． error expected identifier before xxx (token) xxx の前には識別子が来るはずだが．．． error expected identifier before numeric constant 数値定数の前には識別子が来るはずだが．．． error expected specifier-qualifier-list before xxx (token) xxx の前には型のリストが来るはずだが．．． error format string argument not a string type 書式指定の文字列が与えられていない error function definition declared typedef 関数定義に typedef がついてる (typedef の最後のセミコロンを忘れている場合など) error incompatible type for argument NNN of xxx 関数 xxx の NNN 番目の引数の型が(仮引数と実引数とで)合わない error incompatible types in assignment 代入で(左辺と右辺の)型が合わない error incompatible types in initialization 変数の初期化で(変数と値の)型が合わない error incompatible types in return returnで返す値の型と関数プロトタイプの戻り値の型が一致しない error increment of read-only location (const 修飾子がついていて)読出専用のものをインクリメントしようとしている error increment of read-only member xxx (const 修飾子がついている構造体の)読出専用のメンバ xxx をインクリメントしようとしている error increment of read-only variable xxx (const 修飾子がついていて)読出専用の変数 xxx をインクリメントしようとしている error initializer element is not constant 初期化式が定数式じゃない error invalid initializer 初期化式の不正 error invalid lvalue in assignment 代入の左辺が変数じゃない error invalid lvalue in decrement デクリメント演算子(--)が変数じゃないものに適用されている error invalid lvalue in increment インクリメント演算子(++)が変数じゃないものに適用されている error invalid lvalue in unary アドレス演算子( )が変数じゃないものに適用されている error invalid operands to binary xxx 二項演算子 xxx の引数の不正 error invalid preprocessing directive #xxx そんな #xxx なんて知らない(#include などの綴り間違いの可能性大) error invalid suffix "xxx" on integer constant 整数の後に xxx が付いている error invalid type argument of - ポインタから構造体のメンバを指定する - の使い方の誤り error invalid type argument of unary * 間接演算子(*)の使い型の誤り(*がポインタじゃないものに付いている) error invalid use of void expression キーワード void の使い方の誤り error label xxx used but not defined xxx というラベルを定義せずに使っている error lvalue required as decrement operand デクリメント演算子(--)の引数は変数じゃなきゃダメ error lvalue required as increment operand インクリメント演算子(++)の引数は変数じゃなきゃダメ error lvalue required as left operand of assignment 代入演算子(=)の左は変数じゃなきゃダメ error lvalue required as unary operand アドレス演算子( )の右に来るのは変数じゃなきゃダメ error missing terminating " character 文字列定数の終わりの「"」がない error missing terminating character 文字定数の終わりの「 」がない error multiple default labels in one switch switch 文に default が複数ある error number of arguments doesn t match prototype 関数プロトタイプ宣言と引数の数が違う error old-style parameter declarations in prototyped function definition 関数の引数リストの宣言の仕方が古いスタイル error parameter name omitted 引数名が省略されている error parameter NNN ( xxx ) has incomplete type NNN 番目の引数 xxx の型が不完全 error previous declaration of xxx was here xxx の前の宣言はココ (conflicting types for xxx とペアで出てくる) error previous definition of xxx was here xxx の前の定義はココ(関数を二重に定義しているような場合) error previous implicit declaration of xxx was here xxx の前の暗黙の宣言はココ error redeclaration of xxx with no linkage xxx が二重に宣言されている error redeclaration of enumerator xxx 列挙型 xxx が二重に宣言されている error redefinition of xxx xxx が二重に定義されている error redefinition of parameter xxx 仮引数 xxx が二重に定義されている error redefinition of typedef xxx xxx が二重に typedef されている error request for member xxx in something not a structure or union 構造体でないのに xxx というメンバを使っている error size of array xxx is too large 配列 xxx の要素数が大きすぎ error stray \xxx in program プログラム中で，文字列やコメント以外の場所に全角文字を使用した際によく出るエラー． 特に，全角空白を使用すると，見た目ではわからないので発見が難しいが， このエラーメッセージに示されている行を探すと見つかるはず． error subscripted value is neither array nor pointer 配列で(もポインタでも)ないものに添字([i]など)を使用している error switch quantity not an integer switch 文の()の中に整数以外のものが来ている(switch 文で扱えるのは値が整数になるもののみ) error syntax error at end of input プログラムの最後に構文エラーあり error syntax error before xxx (token) xxx の前に構文エラーあり error syntax error before numeric constant 数値定数の前に構文エラーあり error syntax error before string constant 文字列定数の前に構文エラーあり error too few arguments to function xxx 関数 xxx の呼び出しの際の引数(実引数)が少なすぎ error too many arguments to function xxx 関数 xxx の呼び出しの際の引数(実引数)が多すぎ error too many decimal points in number 数値に小数点が多すぎ(2個以上ついてる) error two or more data types in declaration specifiers 型宣言において複数の型が指定されている error unrecognized command line option "xxx" cc コマンドのオプションで xxx なんてのは知らない error unterminated comment コメントが終了していない error used struct type value where scalar is required (int 型や double 型などの)スカラ値が来なきゃいけないところに構造体を使っている error variable or field xxx declared void 変数 xxx の型が void 型になってる error variable-sized object may not be initialized 可変長のオブジェクトが初期化されていない可能性 error void value not ignored as it ought to be void 型(の関数の戻り値)を使おうとしている error wrong type argument to decrement デクリメント演算子(--)の引数の型が違う error wrong type argument to increment インクリメント演算子(++)の引数の型が違う error wrong type argument to unary exclamation mark 否定演算子(!)の引数の型が違う 【警告メッセージ】 warning "/*" within comment コメント中に /* があるけど．．． warning "XXX" redefined XXX を #define で重複して定義している warning return with a value, in function returning void 戻り値の型が void 型の関数なのに return で値を返している warning struct xxx declared inside parameter list struct xxx の宣言が引数リストの中で行なわれている warning xxx is used uninitialized in this function この関数内で xxx が初期化しないまま使われている warning xxx may be used uninitialized in this function この関数内で xxx が初期化しないまま使われている warning array subscript has type char 配列の添字の型が char 型(文字型)になっている warning assignment discards qualifiers from pointer target type 代入の際，代入元にあった型修飾子が捨てられた warning assignment from incompatible pointer type 互換性のないポインタ型からの代入 warning assignment makes integer from pointer without a cast ポインタを整数に(キャストなしで)代入しようとしている warning assignment makes pointer from integer without a cast 整数をポインタに(キャストなしで)代入しようとしている warning backslash and newline separated by space バックスラッシュ(\)と改行の間に空白がある （行が長すぎるとき，見やすくなるように改行して次の行に続けて書くんだけど，プログラムとしては 一行として扱って欲しい場合がある．そういった場合，前の行の行末にバックスラッシュ(\)を入れてそ の直後で改行してやれば，後続の行は「継続行」となり一行として扱ってくれる．ところが，バックス ラッシュと改行の間に空白文字などの目に見えない余計なものが入っていると継続行とはならないの で，それに対する注意．） warning cast from pointer to integer of different size ポインタをサイズの異なる整数にキャストしている warning character constant too long for its type 文字定数が長すぎ(文字定数と文字列定数の混同？) warning comparison between pointer and integer ポインタと整数を比較している warning comparison is always false due to limited range of data type データ型の範囲の制限により，比較結果はつねに偽(false)になる warning comparison is always true due to limited range of data type データ型の範囲の制限により，比較結果はつねに真(true)になる warning comparison of distinct pointer types lacks a cast 異ったポインタ型を比較している warning conflicting types for xxx xxx の型に矛盾がある warning conflicting types for built-in function xxx 組込み関数 xxx の型に矛盾がある warning control reaches end of non-void function 値を返す関数なのに，return なしに関数の終わりまで来ちゃった warning data definition has no type or storage class データの定義に型or記憶クラスがない(typedef struct ... のあたりで間違えている可能性大) warning excess elements in scalar initializer 初期化式中の要素が多すぎ warning format %xxx expects type yyy , but argument NNN has type zzz printf の書式の %xxx には yyy の型を与えなきゃいけないけど，NNN 番目の引数で zzz の型を与えている warning function returns address of local variable (関数内で宣言した)局所変数のアドレスを return で返している warning implicit declaration of function xxx 関数 xxx の暗黙のプロトタイプ宣言 warning incompatible implicit declaration of built-in function xxx 関数 xxx の暗黙のプロトタイプ宣言が不整合(プロトタイプ宣言を忘れたときに起こる) warning initialization from incompatible pointer type ポインタ変数の初期化式が不整合 warning initialization makes integer from pointer without a cast 整数の変数の初期化式にポインタを与えている warning initialization makes pointer from integer without a cast ポインタ変数の初期化式に整数を与えている warning initializer-string for array of chars is too long 文字配列の初期化用の文字列が長すぎ(配列の長さを超えている) warning left-hand operand of comma expression has no effect カンマ演算子(,)の左側は何の効果もない warning missing whitespace after the macro name #define する記号名の後には空白文字(スペース記号，タブ，改行など)が必要 warning multi-character character constant 文字列定数なのに複数文字がある ( \0 と書くべきところを /0 と書いてしまった場合など) warning no newline at end of file ファイルの最後に改行がない warning no semicolon at end of struct or union 構造体の定義の最後にセミコロンがない warning overflow in implicit constant conversion 定数の暗黙の変換でオーバーフローが起きた warning parameter names (without types) in function declaration 関数の引数が名前だけで型が指定されていない(int x と書くべきところを x とだけ書いた場合など) warning passing argument NNN of xxx discards qualifiers from pointer target type 関数 xxx の NNN 番目の引数で渡したポインタの修飾子(qualifires)を放棄した warning passing argument NNN of xxx from incompatible pointer type 関数 xxx の NNN 番目の引数に一致しないポインタ型が渡されている warning passing argument NNN of xxx makes integer from pointer without a cast 関数 xxx の NNN 番目の引数でポインタが要求されているところに整数を渡した warning passing argument NNN of xxx makes pointer from integer without a cast 関数 xxx の NNN 番目の引数に渡した整数がキャストなしでポインタにされている (仮引数はポインタなのに実引数として整数を渡している) warning previous declaration of xxx was here xxx の前の宣言はココ (conflicting types for xxx とペアで出てくる) warning previous implicit declaration of xxx was here xxx の前の暗黙の宣言はココ warning return from incompatible pointer type 型の一致しないポインタ型を返そうとしている warning return makes integer from pointer without a cast 整数を返すべきところでポインタを返している warning return makes pointer from integer without a cast ポインタを返すべきところで整数を返している warning return type defaults to int (戻り値の型がないので)戻り値の型をint型にした warning return type of main is not int main 関数の戻り値の型が int になってない warning statement with no effect この文は何の効果もない(値を計算しているだけで捨てていて，何にも代入していない可能性大) warning suggest explicit braces to avoid ambiguous else (if 文の入れ子で) else の範囲が曖昧なので，明示的に括弧({ と })をつけた方が良い warning suggest parentheses around assignment used as truth value 代入した値を条件式の中で使う場合は括弧で囲む方が良い(== を = に間違えた場合などに発生) warning the `gets function is dangerous and should not be used. 関数 gets は危険なので使うべきじゃない warning too few arguments for format printf 中にある(%d などの)書式指定の数に比べて，引数で与えたものの数が少なすぎ warning too many arguments for format printf 中にある(%d などの)書式指定の数に比べて，引数で与えたものの数が多すぎ warning unknown escape sequence \xxx \xxx なんていうエスケープ文字は知らない warning unused variable xxx 変数 xxx を宣言してるけど使っていない warning value computed is not used 計算した値を使っていない 【その他】 filename.c (.text+0x???) undefined reference to xxx collect2 ld returned 1 exit status xxx という関数を使っているが，作成されていないときに起きるエラー 本当に作っていない場合の他に，関数名を間違えている場合にも起きる
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ルーマン関連テキスト http //mgterp.freeyellow.com/academic/luh-obit_rc51.html NIKLAS LUHMANN 1927-1998 Obituary Written for the ISA by Dr. Bernd R. Hornung, University of Marburg - President - ISA Research Committee 51 on Sociocybernetics Introduction The death of Niklas Luhmann on November 6, 1998 was a great loss. He was a most important contemporary intellectual leader and representative of systems science in sociology. Indeed, his influence extended far beyond sociology. We owe a great debt to Niklas Luhmann for numerous important findings, breakthroughs, and intellectual challenges. Again and again he opened surprising views and new perspectives to sociology, systems science, and numerous other disciplines. He was one of the very few contemporary sociologists who indeed changed paradigms from structural-functionalism to functional-structural and problem-functionalist theory, from the society of action to the society of communication and semantics, from the social "machine" to autopoiesis. Some of these changes may seem only to be playing with words, and yet this shifting of terms changed worlds. He was a sharp observer of minute differences. No wonder he embraced the theory of the organization of the living of Maturana and Varela, in which the concept of the observer plays a key role. Combined with his precise and complex reasoning trained in legal science he further developed this theory and transferred it to sociology, where it became soon a cornerstone of his own monumental construction of theory. Theory was his passion. But beyond being a great theorist, he was a great person. He had a lot of patience, towards his topics of study as well as towards his students and friends. Many friends and colleagues appreciated and enjoyed his sense of humor and his contagious smile. Scientific dispute and conflict he could keep separate from personal relations, as demonstrated brilliantly in the controversy with Habermas. A considerable part of his life work consists in applying his abstract, complex frame of theoretical reference to virtually all areas of society, from the internal workings of administration to global ecological problems, from politics and economy to arts, love, and religion. Aiming at a universal theory of society no sector of society was left out in his attempt to apply, test, and further develop his theory. He used his incredible encyclopedic knowledge, accumulated from the tremendous amount of reading he did. Luhmann spent most of his life in the plains of Northern Germany, not on the coast, but at Lüneburg, Hannover, Münster, and Bielefeld, where the sea is beyond the horizon, sending the winds to sweep up the skies, blue and grey. Horizons, after all, become one of the key concepts in his theory. It seems they were a key concept in his life too, as again and again he moved towards new challenges. Early Years Niklas Luhmann was born on December 8, 1927, in Lüneburg, Germany, as the son of the owner of a brewery. His mother was of Swiss origin, and the family kept their distance from politics during those difficult times. In 1944 seventeen year old Niklas Luhmann had to join the German armed forces. This experience, along with a short time of being a prisoner of war, convinced him to turn to the study of law at Freiburg afterwards (1946-49). He felt this was a way of creating some order in the chaos of life he had experienced so far and to counteract the lawlessness he had seen. This kind of study made him familiar with the handling of legal-theoretical constructions and the analysis of results of different possible options, a theme he would take up later in sociology, just like he would profit later from his passion for reading, which he had developed already as a pre-school child, and from his interest in history. The Practitioner of Law and Public Administration Nevertheless, there was no straight line to becoming a famous professor of sociology. The material hardships of post-war Germany urged him to study rapidly and to return to Lüneburg. There, traineeship for becoming a lawyer showed him that this profession would imply only formal independence while in fact making him dependent on a variety of constraints. With his peculiar and often surprising logic, with which he later on would work out the issues of functional equivalence and differentiation, he decided to go into public administration. This promised more liberty to follow his own ideas. First at the Court of Administration at Lüneburg (1954), then at the State Ministry of Culture and Education in Hannover he was doing practical work on legal affairs of public administration, without neglecting private intellectual interests. At that time his ideas were not yet very clearly focussed, although directed towards theoretical aspects of law and philosophy (1955-62). In this period he got married (1960) and soon had a family with three children. During this time, however, it became also clear that his curriculum and interests would not fit an ordinary administrative career, and that he was not willing to give up his independence by joining a political party in order to succeed. Although he liked his work, it gradually became routine. Aware of the difficulties of progressing in his career, Niklas Luhmann gladly accepted the opportunity to take a sabbatical leave to go to Harvard for a year (1960-61). There he studied with Talcott Parsons and collected materials for a future publication. Beginnings of a Scientific Career Upon his return to Germany, another opportunity opened up for Niklas Luhmann to continue his scientific work without abandoning his status as a state government official. He managed to get transferred to a research institute at the School of Public Administration at Speyer (1962-65). There he enjoyed great independence in his work and could follow his own scientific interests. At Speyer he published his first book on "Functions and Consequences of Formal Organizations" (1964). His career as a sociologist started in 1966, when Niklas Luhmann was at the age of 39 already. At that time Helmut Schelsky was involved in the foundation of a new "Reform University", which after all turned out to be at Bielefeld. He had convinced Niklas Luhmann to come to Dortmund to work with him in 1965. In 1966 Niklas Luhmann managed to get his Ph.D. as well as his Habilitation at the University of Münster, working with Helmut Schelsky and Dieter Claessens. At Münster, Niklas Luhmann gave his inaugural lecture on "Sociological Enlightenment", setting up a program of sociological research inspired by the Age of Enlightenment and with high ambitions for sociology. The Professor at Bielefeld In 1968, Niklas Luhmann was the first professor formally appointed at the newly founded Reform University of Bielefeld. There, as a member of the Faculty of Sociology, he could finally devote his full energy to a theory of modern society. For Niklas Luhmann this was first to be a description of society. His efforts to develop such a description as a theory without a normative basis were primarily inspired by systems theory and cybernetics and to some extent by Husserl s phenomenology. The basic rationale for this approach was that a description and analysis is required before any recipes can be given. A theory, in Luhmann s opinion, first of all should provide a better and more complex understanding of the world. One important attempt to investigate the range of his theoretical approach and to expand it in confrontation with another important theory was the so-called Habermas-Luhmann controversy (1971). Methodology Being trained in law, Niklas Luhmann developed precise and complicated argumentations, i.e. "techniques of theory". However, he did not do empirical work in the sense of research projects involving empirical data collection and statistical processing or participant observation in the ethnological style. Instead, he worked empirically in terms of library research and case studies, corresponding to the style of legal science. Perhaps this conformed more closely to his topic than the collection of empirical raw data. After all, his topic was society as a whole and his passion was theory. Student of Parsons and Researcher on Complexity In a way, Niklas Luhmann, a student of Parsons at Harvard, can be considered a worthy successor to Talcott Parsons and the earlier classic figures in sociology. It was Parsons and after him Luhmann, who aimed at working out a universal encompassing sociological theory - grand theory! In another way, he was not a follower of Parsons, although his whole work is based on functionalism. Niklas Luhmann very clearly perceived the problems in Parsons approach and dynamized and generalized very radically the original structural-functionalist approach by a strategic shift of paradigm to problem-functionalism and by assigning a central theoretical place to the concept of functional equivalence. These were, in a way, "theory-technical" pre-conditions for giving a central place to complexity and making this highly abstract concept not only a "world formula", as some would say, but also making it highly productive for sociological analysis. Much of Luhmann s work can be considered an analysis of complexity under different conditions and in different sectors of society. Complexity, however, leaned toward remaining an empty formula. In Luhmann´s theoretical framework it becomes more tangible and obtains an increased capacity for guiding theory when it is combined with autopoiesis. To arrive at a general theory of society, Luhmann incorporated and adapted to his own work the theory of autopoietic systems, developed originally by Maturana and Varela for living systems. Considered as communication systems, social systems are non-living systems in Niklas Luhmann´s view. With this, his theory of society is about as far from Maturana and Varela as from Parsons "Structure of Social Action", AGIL system, and pattern variables. This move in a way also leads to a thinning of sociology from action to mere communication, from a colorful multi-level system consisting of a number of emergent levels of reality, as described e.g. by Walter Buckley, to the apparently isolated level of pure communication. For this level, according to Luhmann, everything else, including human beings as persons and psychic systems, is "environment". A central category in this set-up of theory is not the actor anymore, but the observer. The Observer Luhmann insisted on being an observer. Not necessarily because he would object to action, but definitely because he objected to premature action. After all, observation is the first step. For this he had a predestination, being a specialist of law trained in observing situations, fitting them to legal frameworks and regulations, and arguing with the tools provided by legal theory. This, along with his longstanding interest in history and his study of Husserl and phenomenology, sets him apart from the style of natural sciences, i.e. empirical measurement, data collection, and statistical hypothesis testing as a way to construct theory. The Sociologist Although there are reproaches that Luhmann was "too philosophical", close reading of his works, and especially his late work, shows that he was indeed a sociologist, usually, however, a very abstract one. He clearly pinpoints and takes into account philosophical problems. But more than anything else he was interested in their social basis and social consequences. In this way it is hardly justified to call him a philosopher. Instead, what he was doing intensively was a sociology of knowledge and in many instances even a sociology of philosophy. Conclusion Niklas Luhmann carried the analysis of social systems as communication systems to its last stage. What this means for sociology as a contemporary discipline is by no means clear yet. But where a genius has brought about a new paradigm, for the army of "regular scientists", in the sense of Thomas S. Kuhn, there remains a lot to be done. His restriction to "observation" is clearly against the tides of the time. Yet if many of us, sociologists and systems scientists, think we cannot afford the luxury of non-intervention in our problem-ridden times, or if we are in fact under daily pressure in our jobs to "produce" both scientific results and students to the precise profiles requested by the economy and the "market", we should take a moment to consider whether such a great personality like Niklas Luhmann does not have a series of lessons to teach us. Complexity can be handled only by complexity, variety is required to allow answers to new surprises and problems. Time, temporalization, and different speeds in different societal subsystems are crucial elements of current life. The firm structures of our world are dissolving into processes and events enabling precarious autopoiesis. BUT Reflection and learning comes only after the event, reaction to a set of problems produces effects only once the situation has changed already again. Even those who may not fully share Niklas Luhmann s opinion that sociology should not try to improve the world, should take very seriously his insistence on careful observation and theory building, on ethics depending on theory (not determining it) and on the functional differentiation between science, including sociology, and politics. Niklas Luhmann s death is an obligation for us to preserve his legacy and to continue in his interdisciplinary and inquiring spirit to explore the frontiers of sociological systems science. His credo of "Sociological Enlightenment" certainly deserves to be adopted by all of us as a major orientation to our work. Dr. Bernd R. Hornung, University of Marburg - President - ISA Research Committee 51 on Sociocybernetics
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StepManiaX 機種：AC 作曲者：多数 開発元：Step Revolution 発売年：2017 概要 Step Revolution社から販売されている音楽ゲーム。 読み方は「ステップマニアクス」。 アーケードゲームではあるが個人による購入も可能であり、日本でもごく限られたゲームセンターで遊ぶ事ができる。 楽曲は版権曲やアレンジ曲が多いものの、書き下ろし曲も複数曲収録されている。 またDDRの元サウンドプロデューサーだった前田尚紀氏がコンポーザーの1人として参加している。 収録曲 公式表記に準拠 アレンジ曲のアーティスト名は原曲者の名前が使用されている点に留意 曲名 アーティスト名 補足 順位 All Of Me ~Handz Up Radio Mix~ Klubbmover Ba Be Loo Be La Kristeen Bagpipe A-Moe Be My Hero Freezer Birdie Doolittle Blow My Mind Alphadelta Bounce ~Melbournce Bounce Project Remix~ Crew 7 Burning Tonight Krystal Can t Get Enough Miradey Can t Let Go Jenna Drey Change The World Nathalie Jim Lukas Cowbell Rock Pyramyth Crazy Baby ~2008 Club Edit~ Fantasy Project Dabbi Doo Ni-Ni Dance Vibrations Elpis Dancing Circus Brisby Jingles Day After Day ~De-Grees Rmx Edit~ Rikah Don t Stop My Music Tonight David Dima Dream A Dream ~Cheeky Trax UK Remix~ Captain Jack Dreaming Rameses B feat. Holly Drummond Dynamo Oscillator X Emotion Smiley Endless Day Verona Everything is Changing ~Verano Remix Edit~ Rikah Firewalker Xenon Flight of The Bumblebee MonstDeath Frozen Fire Kbit Funny Love (Filatov Karas Remix) Dan Balan Get Down Kairo Kingdom Girlz Night Out ~Andy Harding Club Mix~ Jenna Drey Got The Rhythm Fracus Darwin feat. Becca Hossany Hard Fast Disco Darwin Hyper Hyper Smiley I Love You Baby Pandera In the Hall of the Mountain King KaW Indignation Auvic feat. Pipo Fernandez It Gets Better Eskimo feat. Maria Merete Joanna Crazy Loop Land of The Lost Banzai Licky Licky Crispy Lights Go Down Less Affair Link Line Asterisk Look Into My Eyes Rabih Lucky Star Miradey Made In China Vitas Sergey Pudovkin Medicine 2013 ~Crew 7 Edit~ Kim Leoni Mexi Mexi Mozquito Million Feelings Chriss Floren Monody TheFatRat feat. Laura Brehm Moonstone Virgill My Freedom Rayman Rave Nika Lenina Origin Stallian Party All Night KaW Sam-I-Am Party People ~KaW Hands Up Edit~ Oscillator X Party People (Turn it Up) Andy Stroke Personal Reality Auvic Ready To Fly Aleky Remember December Smiley Reminds Me of Home Stallian Revenge MonstDeath Rockslaves Leo Pigot Rinat Crane Run Away Avejio Save My World Stephy Secret 2K12 Rene Ablaze feat. Jacinta Shoulda ~Tale Dutch House Remix~ SUNN Show Me Your Moves Auvic feat. Pipo Fernandez Start Paws Oscillator X Sun Goes Down Landomania That Night ~D-R Remix~ Eskimo and Icebird The 7th Element (Zariis 2015 Remake) Vitas The Last Time Zariis The Rainmaker ~Remix Edit~ Doug Laurent Think Thousand Thoughts Auvic Time is Ticking Elpis feat. Black Elway Time To Fly Cindy Cooper Twins Martin Eriksson feat. Ellee Unity TheFatRat We Are The Sun Maui Crizz feat. Gerald G. What Happened To Love (Mig Rizzo Club Mix) Denine Who KaW Y Don t U Deeper Territory Zodiac Banzai All It Takes Zariis Hurry Up! MonstDeath Sinxorder MonstDeath Big Blue Bouncy Ball Mr. Blue Ignition Starts KaW One Step Further Jenna Drey Surf Hyper Potions Agent Blatant Ernest + Julio Bloodrush TeknoDred Da Roots Mind Reflection Determinator Dust Devil Disconnected Disco Kid Whatever Drifting Away Filo Bedo Fleadh Uncut Ian Parker Flying High Filo Bedo Gallecode Novus Go 60 Go Takoyaki Hispanic Panic Chucho Merchan Holy Guacamole Chucho Merchan I Think I Like That Sound Kid Whatever Ize Pie Headtwist Pump Land of the Rising Sun Spacekatz My Life Is So Crazy Initial P Psalm Pilot Jason Creasey Reactor Jason Creasey ROM-eo Juli8 Nina Soapy Bubble Fragmentz Spin Chicken Freebie The Bean Temple of Boom Yannis Kamarinos This is Rock and Roll DJ Zombie While tha Rekkid Spinz DJ Zombie Chica Bomb Dan Balan Crazy Loop (Mm Ma Ma) Crazy Loop I Feel Sun Gyrlie Paradise Smiley Pop4 (Darwin Remix) Vibes Wishdokta Ra Banzai Bad 4 My Health Bassmonkeys Soulsilver feat. J.D. ROX Get Busy Bassmonkeys Bianca Lindgren I ll Show You Loving Bassmonkeys feat. Natasha Anderson Click Bait S3RL Feat. Gl!TCH Dies Irae Jason Creasey Ladybug Coconut Paranormal Inspector K Sunshine Triple J Sweet World Omega Men Darkness Sanxion7 Eternus Sanxion7 Feel The Melody S3RL feat. Sara Gargoyle Sanxion7 Mellow Rikki DAZ Pink Fuzzy Bunnies Wonderboy Rainspark Sanxion7 Zenith Sanxion7 Be Alive (Raaban Inc. Remix) Stian K Boom Boom Dollars (Factory Eurotrance Remix) King Kong D Jungle Girls Do U Love Me DJ Doo Feels Just Like That Night Eskimo Icebird Feat. Maria Merete Hanky Panky (E=MC2 Mix) Jenny Rom July (EuroMix) Smiley The Beginning DJ Doo Utopia Smiley Xuxa Smiley Ari Oh Jenny Kee Beautiful Man Radiorama Become Astral Ash Astral Bumble Bee Bambee Coming Out Playmaker feat. Robina Dizzy Balduin Wolfgang Lohr feat. Alanna Never Gonna Make Morgana Waka Laka Jenny Rom VS. The Zippers Bang Bang Bang (Handsup Style Mix) DCX Dance Boom Boom (The Factory Eurobeat Mix) Tipsy Tipsy Flash In The Night Flashman Hero Miss Papaya Monolith Affinity Nightmoves Playmaker Senorita (Speedy Mix) Jenny Rom Typical Tropical Bambee Who R You (Beat You Edit) Leo Pigot Whoopsy Daisy Wolfgang Lohr Balduin feat. Sebastian Daws Young Forever Rebecca A Sign (Factory Eurobeat Team Mix) Tipsy Tipsy Esperanza KaW Ghosts (Vincent De Moor Mix) Tenth Planet Justify My Love Tess Move It Groove It KaW feat. Sam-I-Am Movin On Ellen Gee Pink Dinosaur Miss Papaya The Saint Goes Marching (Helix Remix 2020 Edit) The Saint Anubis Banzai Bandito Remorse Code Bye Bye Baby Balloon Joga Dam Dariram Joga Electric The DNC feat. Miss Amani Exotica Banzai Music Police CJ Crew KaW feat. Christian D. No Princess Lynn So Deep (Perfect Sphere Remix) Silvertear Stay Tess Summer Night In Seattle Jenna Drey We re Getting Faster Darwin feat. Fraz Your Own Destiny Entity Darwin Come On Now Miss Amani Devil Inside CRMNL Dam Dadi Doo Fantasy Project Dolphin Talk Pyramyth Fantasy Melissa Get Lifted Hot Kicks In My Dreams Rebecca Living In America Rose John Speed Over Beethoven Rose Classic Madness Fracus Darwin Dopamine (Tale Dutch Remix) You In Mind Equinox Mage Give Into Nutronic I Want Your Balalaika The Royal Eurobeat Orchestra of Bazookistan India s Glitch Kirill Gramada July Redux Entity Life Ride Pyramyth Mozart Is Back Rose My Baby Mama Anquette Nothing Gonna Stop Micky Silence Fracus Darwin Black Magic Matduke Crime Time CJ Crew KaW feat. Sedge Magic Mystery Tour KaW feat. Paula Terry Night of Fright (Spooky Edit) Justin Corza 420 Nightmare (Mage Remix) FSJ feat. Tara Louise Pretty Ugly (Jump Smokers Remix) Yenn Riddimino Philstep Sky High Lucyfer Warrior Kirill Gramada MAX428 Omega Arcade Run Perfect Sphere Bring Your Lovin Back Fracus Confusion Tess Doh! Tale Dutch Hypnosis (BanYa Buzz Edit) Colin Kiddy I m Crazy For Your Love Black Eva Into My Dream (Kaveh Azizi Remix) Lagoona No Nobody s Love Joga Bazookistan The Royal Eurobeat Orchestra of Bazookistan Electro Asia Re-venge Phoenix Megalovania (Chime Remix) Toby Fox My Generation (Fat Beat Mix) Captain Jack Nori Nori Nori Judy Crystal Russian Roulette Darwin Spaceman Bambee Lynn What Love Feels Like Leonail Csikos Post (2021 Yahpp Remix) BanYa Delirium (T2Kazuya Remix) Smiley Ma Huggies FIG Nico Sleator On My Own Anamanaguchi feat. HANA Show U Love Entity Take Me Away Fracus Darwin Twelve -True Fix- Riyu Kosaka Beethoven Virus (2021 Yahpp Remix) BanYa BU-44 Naoki Charlene Missing Heart Do It All Night (2003) E-Rotic Fall Silently Christoph Maitland Toby Emerson feat. Veela Hip Hop Jam Indiggo Kagami (T2Kazuya Remix) KaW Subzero Donk Terrorist vs. 204 Baby Love Me Judy Crystal Critical Hit MDK Forever Schustin Summer (Speedy Mix) Smiley Temple Of Love E-Rotic The Judgement Day Naoki feat. Riyu Kosaka Winter (2021 Yahpp Remix) BanYa Cryosleep Machinae Supremacy Destiny Smiley Dr. M (2021 Yahpp Remix) BanYa Glowing In The Night (90 s Radio Edit) Schustin In The Heat Of The Night E-Rotic Katana Fighter Electron Sky High DJ Miko Brutalisphere Machinae Supremacy Butterfly Swingrowers Cartoon Heroes (Speedy Mix) Barbie Young Melancholy Vision DE-SIRE Operator Miss Papaya Show U M-Project Step Up Amadeus (2021 Yahpp Remix) BanYa Test My Best E-Rotic Kick It Man KaW feat. DAZ If You Can Say Goodbye (Factory Team Mix) Kate Project Liquify Toby Emerson Paradox (StepManiaX Mix) Naoki feat. Riyu Kosaka Queen Of Light E-Rotic Ring The Alarm M-Project Signal Say What (Pisk Electro Swing Remix) Cut Capers Contrast Donk Terrorist vs. Daniel Seven Jukebox Swingrowers Kinky Boots Daz Sampson Nona op13 -type one- riddle Turn Me On E-Rotic Boomerang Miss V Canon D.2 Yahpp Closer To Heaven Neonne Give You Love (Bounce Enforcerz Remix) Daz Sampson Katya Ocean Grab It While We Can FantastixX Never Ending Story DJ AC/DC William Tell Quiqman 403 (Tokyo 2021) Naoki Underground Disco High (Scorccio Hot Vox Mix) Ultimate Heights Follow My Pamp Andrea Damante feat. Adam Clay Robot World Oscillator X Saberdance Quiqman Say Na Na Na Serhat Watch Out Victoria Business Wars Quiqman feat. Eternal JK Yoripi-chan Get Up n Move S K Insane (Stephan F Remix) Niko Noise Lay It Down (Fresno Edit) Tchorta Gui Boratto Pump The Rhythm (Scorccio Hot Edit) Ultimate Heights We Do This Dance Victoria Cyber-Kyoto- Re-venG Don t Stop S K Everybody 2 The Sun (Scorccio Hot Edit) Ultimate Heights High On Your Love Safura Kalinka Quiqman Silent Movie (Odd Chap Remix) Little Violet Take Take Miss V The Naughty Song Oscillator X Everybody Dance (Scorccio Hot Edit) X-Rated I Met You DJ Cosmin, Ole Bott, Ammagin feat. Simon Erics Katyusha (Russian Key Edit) Schustin Sing It Again Kirk Monteux Bubbles Tokyo Machine Outbreak Feint feat. Mylk Shiawase Dion Timmer The Shrimps Vertigini 7th Trip (80 s-00 s) NM underground artifact Fade Out Bensley Here For You PIXL feat. Q AILA Recovery JMCX Dystopia 2077 F.O.O.L The Forgotten Moonlight PIXY Press Start MDK The Call of Wilderness Electron Just Do It Swingrowers Liberar Vida Scorccia Meta Dreadnaught Machinae Supremacy We Got The Moves Electric Callboy Dark Fenix DE-SIRE Art City Virgill Bewitched PIXY Cosmic Drive Quiqman Have Fun Rameses B Pump It Electric Callboy All For One IVD x Dee Dee x Kenny Hayes How We Win FWLR Ooh La La La E-Rotic Stop Me Natsume Oki Villain PIXY VTubers Never Die! (RE-incarnation MIX) Naoki Eternal JK Yoripi-chan feat. Riyu Kosaka Para-Symptoms 165 Rainbow Rave Parade Chime Space Boy Rameses B, Feint Veela Trigger CraXy Bust It Out FWLR Demon s World CJ Crew Energizer ZiGZaG 初出：In The Groove 2 TURBO Tokyo Machine 動画
https://w.atwiki.jp/finalsonic/
Sonic Extremeへようこそ このサイトは、ソニック大好きでやばいほどオタクな管理人Final Sonicが管理するサイトです。 管理人の本拠地へ Sonic Revolution Contents Sonic The Hedgehog 攻略 PS3,Xbox360で発売中のSonic The Hedgehogの攻略。 Shadow The Hedgehog 攻略 PS2,Gamecube,Xboxで発売中のShadow The Hedgehogの攻略。 Sonic Rush Adventure 攻略 DSで発売中のSonic Rush Adventureの攻略。 Sonic Info ソニックに関する情報。
https://w.atwiki.jp/niconamadqrta/pages/54.html
言わずと知れた踊るRTAプレイヤーである。 【コミュニティ】 スーパーリンペイタイム http //com.nicovideo.jp/community/co330461 【記録】 DQ3 2 49 49 (2012/4/7) DQ1 1 37 17 (2011/1/28) DQ2 4 45 47 (2011/3/19) DQ6 9 57 30 (2011/3/23) DQ4 5 21 47 (2012/5/31) 【大会実績】 第4回底辺駅伝 【関連】 大百科 http //p.tl/nRCs（URL短縮サイト使用） Twitter http //twitter.com/SuperRinpei 裏 http //www.stickam.jp/profile/super_rinpei http //www.ustream.tv/channel/super-rinpei-time
https://w.atwiki.jp/v-lyrics/pages/197.html
さくらのきせつ [ TAG L-S Miku NV_sm1427306 Romaji Title YuuyuP さ] Sakuranokisetsu-桜の季節 Music YuuyuP/ゆうゆP Lyric YuuyuP/ゆうゆP Vocal Hatsune Miku Videos PVs ■ Show/Hide Video http //www.nicovideo.jp/watch/sm1427306 http //www.nicovideo.jp/watch/sm1427306 Translations ■ Show/Hide Romaji sakura saku koro ni boku wa koko ni modoru to tikatta kimi to miageta sora o itumademo oboeteruyo anna ni kirei na hana wa nai yo to hasyaide ita yokogao kaze ni hukarete hanabira takaku takaku nobotteku toki ga sugite nagareta namida mo kawaite daremo ga hutari o wasurete simatte itemo sakura sakura maiodoru youni atatakai omoide tutumi sakura sakura sakasete okure ano hito no inai miti o hitori to iu nagai tabi ni boku wa mou tukare hatete kimi no nokosita kioku haru wa haruka tooku no basyo tada aitai huyu o koete kawaita namida mo kirameki nido to kaeranai kimi o wasurezu ni ikite ikuyo sakura sakura maiodoru youni boku no wagamama o kiite sakura sakura todokete okure hanabira ni omoi nose sakura sakura maiodoru youni atatakai omoide tutumi sakura sakura sakasete okure ano hito no inai miti o sakura sakura kimi no kotoba o boku wa ima koko de omoidasu sakura sakura kikoete kuru yo ano hi no arigatou [部分編集] ■ Show/Hide Translation ---- Waiting for Trasnlation Entry... Available Original Lyric, Nicosound MP3, etc http //www5.atwiki.jp/hmiku/pages/163.html http //nicosound.anyap.info/sound/sm1427306 http //www.nicomimi.com/play/sm1427306 Sub video, PV, other fan made video in YouTube [Add] http //www.youtube.com/watch/xxxxxxxxx ADD LINK すべてのコメントを見る (Information in this page is based on HatsuneMiku@Wiki) _