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Windower4-プラグイン-DrawDistance プラグイン情報 以前の開発者 Azaril 現在の開発者 Aikar 本家フォーラム 本家フォーラム(英語) 変更履歴 本家リンク(英語) 概要 通常は遠くの背景・建物、NPCが表示されず、また距離がある場合はぼやけた表示にしています。この表示距離はFFXIのコンフィグメニューである程度変更することができますが、DrawDistanceは限界を超えて変更することができます。 使い方 ロードしてください。 設定値はコマンドを参考にしてください。 コマンド コマンド 説明 .drawdistance setmap 0-20 背景の表示距離を設定する。0 近く~20 遠くを表示 .drawdistance setmob 0-20 NPC、PCの表示距離を設定する。0 近く~20 遠くを表示 .drawdistance set 0-20 背景とNPC、PCの表示距離を設定を同時に設定する。 .drawdistance show 現在の設定値を表示する。 .drawdistance reset 設定をリセットし、DrawDistanceロード前の設定値に戻す。 注意事項 20の設定値はPCの高い性能を必要とします。参考:br()CPU 4600+2.4ghz AMD X2 64 グラボ 7900GSの環境で、設定値20、天候エフェクト有り、風天候の際にfpsは20~23となります。
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Free Window Registry Repair オフィシャルサイト http //www.regsofts.com/ ダウンロード OS(Windows) 98/Me/NT/2000/XP/2003/Vista 言語 英語 日本語化パッチ http //nardog.takoweb.com/ http //regseeker.nobody.jp/ 記事 http //www.oshiete-kun.net/archives/2006/11/free_windows_registry_repair.html 備考 評価 選択肢 投票数 投票 非常に良い 63 良い 16 どちらでもない 1 悪い 16 非常に悪い 5
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R2RのFounder 策士(笑) 関連リンク Right to Rule FOUNDATI0N AllianceのKBからR2Rのログを抽出 Battleclinicのデータ [ 2009.02.11 14 20 40 ] Snow Slug 宣伝 0.0激戦区進出!遊撃を行ったりCapital戦/POS撃ちなどの大規模な戦いに参加していく予定です。という事で新規さん大募集中Death詳しくはch 第24期帝国十字軍 [ 2009.02.11 14 25 46 ] Carib Devist http //right-to-rule.main.jp/modules/popnupblog/index.php?param=2Blogに先日のPOS攻防戦の様子を載せましたーRight to Rule、詳しくは公開ch"R2RPub"まで [ 2009.02.11 14 35 38 ] Siberie DN28隻にキャリア11隻撃墜 [ 2009.02.11 14 36 27 ] Carib Devist 完全に罠に嵌ってくれました>RA [ 2009.02.11 14 37 10 ] Siberie 467killのLossゼロだよ [ 2009.02.11 14 37 14 ] Siberie すばらすい [ 2009.02.11 14 37 40 ] Siberie でもCaribさんしかいないなw [ 2009.02.11 14 41 06 ] Carib Devist というわけで、KBに私しか居ないとか野次られないようにPvPer募集~ Izanagiの宣伝の僅か5分後に宣伝上乗せ、そしてさも自らが指揮を執ったような発言から策士の異名を持つこととなった。 452 名前:名無しさん@ゴーゴーゴーゴー! 投稿日:2009/02/13(金) 00 14 03 ID yYtwbDzi0 かりぶくんはすっごいよ 社員が誰か予想外の動きをするとぶちぎれ きつい事言えば他人が自分の言う事聞くと思ってるの ちなみに俺の聞ける範囲のログは全部残ってるよかりぶくん 452氏に期待してログのうp待ち 暫定ログその1 暫定ログその2
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ここを編集 MISSION OBJECTIVE Consult the Preservers on Zhakul RESEARCH OPPORTUNITIES +3 Zerg Research +3 Protoss Research +実績 04_A%20Sinister%20Turn.jpgA Sinister Turn [15] Complete all mission objectives in the "A Sinister Turn" mission. ミッション 【A Sinister Turn】 中のクリア目標を全て達成せよ。 05_Out%20for%20Justice.jpgOut for Justice [10] Kill all Protoss in the "A Sinister Turn" mission on Normal difficulty. ミッション 【A Sinister Turn】 難易度 "Normal" において、全てのプロトスを掃討せよ。 06_Maar-ked%20for%20Death.jpgMaar-ked for Death [10] Complete the "A Sinister Turn" mission on Hard difficulty in less than 25 minutes. ミッション 【A Sinister Turn】 難易度 "Hard" を、25分以内に達成せよ。 ミッション・ブリーフィング Zeratul I gathered allies and we made our way to the forbidden archive of Zhakul. There, a triumvirate of mystic Preservers awaited us. And in the shadows... something else was watching - and waiting. 私は同胞の協力を得て、惑星ザクゥールの禁域へとたどり着いた。そこでは3体の霊妙な守護者が我々を待っていた。そして闇の中で...何者かが我々を監視し、そして待ち受けて居たのだ。 ミッション開始シーン Raynor Alright Zeratul, old buddy -- you got your mysterious prophecy. Now let s see what your Preservers made of it. よし、古き友ゼラトゥルよ――あんたは奇妙な予言を手に入れた。次は守護者達がそれから得たものを見せてくれ。 Zeratul My quest to decipher the prophecy took me to the forbidden archive world of Zhakul. その予言を判読する為に、私は惑星ザクゥールにある古き禁域に足を踏み入れた。 Zeratul Here, three immortal Preservers guarded ancient knowledge. 此処には3名の不死身の守護者が、古の知識を守っている。 Zeratul Only they could transcribe the prophetic fragments. I needed to seek them out quickly. 予言の断片を読み解く事ができるのは彼らの他にない。私は彼らを早急に探し出す必要があったのだ。 ミッション中 Zeratul It is strangely silent here, yet these structures are intact. With power they would be functional. ここは奇妙なほど静かだ、にもかかわらず此処の建物は無傷だ。動力さえ与えれば機能するだろう。 Tutorial-Pylon Suppport structure - Pylons are the life force of a Protoss base, creating a radius of energy to Power Protoss structures and increasing Protoss supply so that more units can be warped in. 補助系建物 - パイロンはプロトス基地の生命線で、円形範囲のプロトスの建物に動力を供給し、同時にユニット上限を増やし新たなユニットを転移させることが可能となります。 <パイロンにより電力供給完了> Zeratul The mighty spirits of the preservers are imprisoned close by - we must find them. 守護者達の強力な精神がごく近くで閉じ込められている――我々は彼らを見つけなければならぬ。 Zeratul There are many abandoned structures in this place that we can make use of. They merely need their power restored by the construction of a few well-placed plylons. この土地に放棄されている建物を活用することが出来るだろう。パイロンを少数うまく配置すれば、動力を得て息を吹き返すだろう。 <黒めのストーカー登場> Stalker The Preservers you seek serve a higher power now, dark one. 貴方の求めている守護者達は、今はより力強き者に使えているだよ、闇に染まりし者よ。 <ストーカーが襲ってくる> Zeratul Higher power? What could have corrupted these protoss so? Truly, something foul has taken hold of this cared place. より力強き者?何がこのプロトスを堕落させたのだ?この禁域は実に嫌な感じがする。 <プロトス・ザーグの混合体出現> Hybrid Protoss INTRUDERS... 侵入者ダ... Zeratul A... protoss and zerg hybrid... Gods, an abomination! Who created this atrocity? プ、プロトスとザーグの混合体...何たる事!誰がこんなモノを創り出したのだ? Hybrid Protoss Come, my SLAVES. The time has come to give me your STRENGTH. おいで、私の坊ヤ。お前の力を我がものとする時なのだよ。 <闇の祭壇(Dark Shrine)発見> Zeratul A Dark Shrine! Once power is restored it could be of great value to us. 闇の祭壇!ひとたびエナジーを供給すれば、素晴らしい恩恵を我らに与えてくれる事だろう。 <闇の祭壇(Dark Shirne)エナジー供給完了> Dark Templar Zeratul! Truly fate has sent you here. ゼラトゥル!宿命に導かれて此処にたどり着いたか。 Zeratul Join me, brothers, and we shall cleanse this place of evil. 我に続け同胞よ、我らはこの邪悪な土地を浄化しなければならぬのだ。 Dark Templar Command us! 御命令のままに! <混合体移動開始> Hybrid Protoss This knowledge is FORBIDDEN. 我が知識は門外不出なり。 <混合体撃破1回目> Hybrid Protoss I shall return. 我は不滅なり。(直ぐに舞戻ろうぞ。) Hybrid Protoss Come, my SLAVES. The time has come to give me your STRENGTH. おいで、私の坊ヤ。お前の力を我がものとする時なのだ。 Zeratul The hybrid is draining the preservers to survive! I must free them before it is too late! 混合体は生き延びる為に守護者から力を吸い取っている!手遅れになる前に彼らを解き放たなければ! <混合体復活・移動開始> Hybrid Protoss Your lives are FORFEIT. Surrender to DESPAIR. お前の命はワガモノダ。我ニ捧げるのだ。(絶望=混合体) <混合体撃破2回目> Hybrid Protoss Your doom is only delayed. 滅する時が少し遅れただけぞ。 <放棄された工場発見> Zeratul A robotics Facility! This structure may prove useful to us. ロボット設備ではないか!これは我々に役立つに違いない。 <放棄された工場、エナジー供給完了> Immortal I return to serve お仕えに戻りました。 Zeratul My thanks, mighty one. 感謝する、力強きものよ。 <混合体復活・移動開始> Hybrid Protoss Your existance ENDS this day. そなた等の存在は今日この日が最後トナル。 <混合体撃破3回目> Hybrid Protoss Merely a temporary setback. ほんの、つかの間の安息であるぞ。 Hybrid Protoss Some SECRETS must remain HIDDEN 秘匿ハ秘蔵のままに在ラネバならぬ。 <放棄されたテンプラー寺院発見> Zeratul This templar archive lies abandoned! ここにテンプラー寺院が放棄されている! <放棄されたテンプラー寺院、エナジー供給完了> High Templar Our liberation is at hand! 我らは如何なる時も仕えましょう。 Zeratul Ready yourself, noble warrior. We confront a terrible evil this day. 準備を整えよ、崇高なる戦士よ。今日、我々は恐るべき邪悪に立ち向かわなければならないのだ。 <混合体撃破4回目> Hybrid Protoss You cannot destroy me. I shall rise again. 我を滅することはできぬ。何度でも蘇るろう。 <混合体復活・移動開始> Hybrid Protoss OBLIVION comes. NONE shall stand. 忘却(されし者)が来たのだ。何者ニモ邪魔はさせぬ。 <混合体撃破5回目> Hybrid Protoss I go to gather my strength. 我が力を得に行くぞ。 <混合体復活・移動開始> Hybrid Protoss CEASE your foolish struggle. There is no HOPE. 下愚な抵抗は止メヨ。望ミは何処にもないのだ。 <混合体撃破6回目> Hybrid Protoss Enjoy your fleeting victory. This is not over. つかの間の勝利を味わうがいい。終わりなど無いのだ。 Hybrid Protoss Some SECRETS must remain HIDDEN(定期的に発言するものと思われる) 秘匿ハ秘蔵のままに在ラネバならぬ。 <混合体復活・移動開始> Hybrid Protoss Your existance ENDS this day. そなた等存在は今日この日が最後トナル。 <守護者を覆っているクリスタル攻撃開始> Zeratul The spirits of the Preservers are entombed within! We must break them open immediaately! 守護者の精神がこの中に閉じこめられている!彼らを直ぐに解き放たねば! <守護者を覆っているクリスタル破壊完了> Preserver We have seen the prophetic fragments in your mind, Zeratul. We will make of them what we can. 我々は予言の断片を貴方から感じるぞ、ゼラトゥル。可能な限りそれらを読み解いてやろう。 Preserver The Cycle shall draw to its end. The Xel Naga who forged the stars will transcend their creation... その時代は終焉するであろう。星々をつくりしゼルナーガが、己が創造を超越するが故に... Preserver Yet, the Fallen One shall remain... しかし、堕落せし者が生き残る... Preserver Destined to cover the Void in shadow... 闇の中で虚無を受け入れる運命にある... Preserver It begins with the Great Hungerer. それは貪欲なる者から始まり... Preserver It ends... in utter darkness. 茫漠の闇に...終わる。 Zeratul A Greater Hungerer... could it refer to the zerg Overmind? It has a part to play in this prophecy? 貪欲なる者... ザーグのオーバーマインドの事を指しているのか?オーバーマインドがこの予言で何かの役割を果たすというのか? Zeratul I must seek out the Overmind s final resting place. Our ancient homeworld... of Aiur. 私はオーバーマインドが眠る彼の地へ行かねばならぬ様だ。我が古の故郷...アイユールに。 ミッション達成後 HYPERION CANTINA 15 32 - Shipboard Time ハイペリオン酒場 15 32 - 船内時間 ▼Armory ▽Swann Swann What s up, cowboy? Y know you re lookin kinda rough lately - rougher than usual, I mean. どうした、カウボーイ?お前さん最近ひどい面してるからな - いつもよりひどいって事だが。 Raynor I ve...ah...got a lot goin on the right now, Swann. You know how it is. 俺は..あぁ...色々忙しいんだ、スワン。分かるだろ。 Swann Yeah, sure. Y know you might wanna try laying off the sauce and getting some shuteye once in a while, eh? おうよ。どうだ、たまにはやけ酒は置いといて、ぐっすり眠ってみるってのはどうだ、え? Raynor Thanks, mom. I ll get right on that. ありがとよ、ママ。そうさせてもらうよ。 ▼Bridge ▽Horner (PIERCING THE SHROUDをクリアしていない場合) Horner Welcome back, sir. What did you discover from the crystal this time? お帰りなさいませ。今回はクリスタルから何か得ることがありましたか? Raynor It s that obvious I used it, huh? Zeratul took the prophecy fragments he found to a... temple? Library? Kinda both, I guess. But this weird protoss-zerg hybrid had taken over the place. 使ってたのが人目で分かるような状態ってわけか?ゼラトゥルは手に入れた予言の破片を解読する為に....寺院?書庫?まぁ両方を兼ねたような所へ向かったわけだ。だが、そこは異様な姿をしたプロトスとザーグの混合体が占拠していたんだ。 Horner You mean some sort of infested protoss? それは、つまり感染したプロトスという事ですか? Raynor No, this wasn t like infestation at all. It was like somone took the strengths of both races and twisted them together. I gotta tell you - if these things are real, we re in a lot of trouble. いや、感染とは全く違うな。それはまるで双方の強みを抜き出して混ぜ合わせたような奴だ。オレが言いたいのは――これが事実なら相当やばい事になりそうって事だ。 ▽Horner (PIERCING THE SHROUDをクリアしている場合) Horner Welcome back, sir. Learn anything new from the crystal? お帰りなさいませ。今回はクリスタルから何か得ることがありましたか? Raynor Something I wish I hadn t seen. You remember that zerg-protoss hybrid at the lab we raided? 見なけりゃよかったと思うよ。襲撃した研究所で見た、ザーグとプロトスの混合体、覚えてるか? Horner Hard to forget. That thing was an abomination. 忘れるのは難しいですよ。あれは忌まわしいものでした。 Raynor Well Zeratul took the prophecy fragments he had to a... temple? Library? Kinda both I guess. A hybrid had already taken over the place. [Fear 70]Just how many of these things are out there?[/Fear] ゼラトゥルは予言の断片を持って別の場所に行った..寺院か?書庫か?まぁ両方を兼ねてるんだと思うが。そこはもう混合体が掌握していた。一体何体いるっていうんだ? ▼Cantina ▽Tosh Tosh You look spooked. You ve been seein what the protoss has to show you. The memories shine through you as clear as day. 何かに取り憑かれたって面だな。プロトスと同じものを見てきたんだな。記憶が今日あったかのように、こっちに伝わってくるぜ。 Raynor I saw... a hybrid. Something unnatural. It was trying to corrupt the protoss preservers. Who would have sent it there? Who controls something like that? 俺は見た...混合体だった。自然に反するものだ。プロトスの保護者を退廃させようとしていた。誰があそこに送り込んだんだ?誰があんなものを動かしてる? Tosh The one that made them, for sure. That was just the first of many. Dark harbingers, man. Soon they ll be beyond numbering - an the stars will weep at what comes after. 言えるとすりゃ、そいつらを作った奴だな。氷山の一角だろうさ。暗い前触れって奴だ、あんた。そのうち数え切れなくなる - その後やってくるものにゃ、お星さんも涙を流すだろうよ。 Raynor How could you know all this? どうしてそんなことが分かる? Tosh I don t. I just feel it be true. 分かりゃしねぇさ。真実だと感じるだけだ。 ▽News Announcer Level 800 Elite Tauren Chieftain is back with a new album! Pulse pounding rock that will shake the galaxy! Rock out with such hits as レベル800エリート・タウレン・チーフタンが新作をひっさげて戻ってきた!銀河中を巻き込むノリノリのロックだぜ!ヒット曲の数々でロックンロールだ。 Announcer Rogues Do It from Behind! Terran Up the Night! Another Hydralisk Bites the Dust! Saturday Night s Alright for Nuking! Lucy in the Sky with Mutas! Every Rose has its Thor! ごろつきは後ろから狙う!テラン・アップ・ザ・ナイト!ハイドラリスク地獄へ道づれ!サタデーナイトは核爆弾で大騒ぎ!ルーシー・イン・ザ・スカイ・ウィズ・ミュータリスク!どんな薔薇にもトールがある! 以下参考資料 Stinking_Up_the_Night Another_One_Bites_the_Dust Saturday_Night's_Alright_for_Fighting Lucy_in_the_Sky_with_Diamonds Every_Rose_Has_Its_Thorn Announcer Touring in your galaxy now! 君の銀河を絶賛ツアー中! ▼Laboratory ∵Hanson Hanson Be careful Jim. I think you re losing yourself in that crystal. 気をつけて、ジム。あなたはあのクリスタルに没頭してしまっているように見えるわ。 ここを編集
https://w.atwiki.jp/jikkyosha_ust/pages/401.html
Logical positivism and logical empiricism, which together formed neopositivism, was a movement in Western philosophy that embraced verificationism, an approach that sought to legitimize philosophical discourse on a basis shared with the best examples of empirical sciences. In this theory of knowledge, only statements verifiable either logically or empirically would be cognitively meaningful. Seeking to convert philosophy to this new scientific philosophy was aimed to prevent confusion rooted in unclear language and unverifiable claims.[1] The Berlin Circle and the Vienna Circle propounded logical positivism starting in the late 1920s. Interpreting Ludwig Wittgenstein s philosophy of language, logical positivists identified a verifiability principle or criterion of cognitive meaningfulness. From Bertrand Russell s logicism they sought reduction of mathematics to logic as well as Russell s logical atomism, Ernst Mach s phenomenalism—whereby the mind knows only actual or potential sensory experience, which is the content of all sciences, whether physics or psychology—and Percy Bridgman s musings that others proclaimed as operationalism. Thereby, only the verifiable was scientific and cognitively meaningful, whereas the unverifiable was unscientific, cognitively meaningless "pseudostatements"—metaphysic, emotive, or such—not candidate to further review by philosophers, newly tasked to organize knowledge, not develop new knowledge. Logical positivism became famed for vigorous scientific antirealism to purge science of talk about nature s unobservable aspects—including causality, mechanism, and principles—although that goal has been exaggerated[who said this?]. Still, talk of such unobservables would be metaphorical—direct observations viewed in the abstract—or at worst metaphysical or emotional. Theoretical laws would be reduced to empirical laws, while theoretical terms would garner meaning from observational terms via correspondence rules. Mathematics of physics would reduce to symbolic logic via logicism, while rational reconstruction would convert ordinary language into standardized equivalents, all networked and united by a logical syntax. A scientific theory would be stated with its method of verification, whereby a logical calculus or empirical operation could verify its falsity or truth. In the late 1930s, logical positivists fled Germany and Austria for Britain and United States. By then, many had replaced Mach s phenomenalism with Neurath s physicalism, and Carnap had sought to replace verification with simply confirmation. With World War II s close in 1945, logical positivism became milder, logical empiricism, led largely by Carl Hempel, in America, who expounded the covering law model of scientific explanation. The logical positivist movement became a major underpinning of analytic philosophy,[2] and dominated Anglosphere philosophy, including philosophy of science, while influencing sciences, into the 1960s. Yet the movement failed to resolve its central problems,[3][4][5] and its doctrines were increasingly assaulted, most trenchantly by W V O Quine, Norwood Hanson, Karl Popper, Thomas Kuhn, and Carl Hempel. Contents [hide] 1 Roots 1.1 Language 1.2 Logicism 1.3 Empiricism 2 Origins 2.1 Vienna 2.2 Berlin 2.3 Rivals 2.4 Export 3 Principles 3.1 Analytic/synthetic gap 3.2 Observation/theory gap 3.3 Cognitive meaningfulness 3.3.1 Verification 3.3.2 Confirmation 3.3.3 Weak verification 4 Philosophy of science 4.1 Explanation 4.2 Unity of science 4.3 Theory reduction 5 Critics 5.1 Quine 5.2 Hanson 5.3 Popper 5.4 Kuhn 5.5 Putnam 6 Retrospect 7 Footnotes 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links Roots[edit] Language[edit] Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, by the young Ludwig Wittgenstein, introduced the view of philosophy as "critique of language", offering the possibility of a theoretically principled distinction of intelligible versus nonsensical discourse. Tractatus adhered to a correspondence theory of truth (versus a coherence theory of truth). Wittgenstein s influence also shows in some versions of the verifiability principle.[6][7] In tractarian doctrine, truths of logic are tautologies, a view widely accepted by logical positivists who were also influenced by Wittgenstein s interpretation of probability although, according to Neurath, some logical positivists found Tractatus to contain much metaphysics.[8] Logicism[edit] Gottlob Frege began the program of reducing mathematics to logic, continued it with Bertrand Russell, but lost interest in this logicism, and Russell continued it with Alfred North Whitehead in their monumental Principia Mathematica, inspiring some of the more mathematical logical posivists, such as Hans Hahn and Rudolf Carnap.[9] (Carnap s early anti-metaphysical works employed Russell s theory of types.)[10] Carnap envisioned a universal language that could reconstruct mathematics and thereby encode physics.[9] Yet Kurt Gödel s incompleteness theorem showed this impossible except in trivial cases, and Alfred Tarski s undefinability theorem shattered all hopes of reducing mathematics to logic.[9] Thus, a universal language failed to stem from Carnap s 1934 work Logische Syntax der Sprache (Logical Syntax of Language).[9] Still, some logical positivists, including Carl Hempel, continued support of logicism.[9] Empiricism[edit] In Germany, Hegelian metaphysics was a dominant movement, and Hegelian successors such as F H Bradley explained reality by postulating metaphysical entities lacking empirical basis, drawing reaction in the form of positivism.[11] Starting in the late 19th century, there was "back to Kant" movement. Ernst Mach s positivism and phenomenalism were a major influence. Origins[edit] Vienna[edit] The Vienna Circle, gathering around University of Vienna and Café Central, was led principally by Moritz Schlick. Schlick had held a neo-Kantian position, but later converted, via Carnap s 1928 book Der logische Aufbau der Welt—that is, The Logical Structure of the World—which became Vienna Circle s "bible", Aufbau. A 1929 pamphlet written by Otto Neurath, Hans Hahn, and Rudolf Carnap summarized the Vienna Circle s positions. Another member of Vienna Circle to later prove very influential was Carl Hempel. A friendly but tenacious critic of the Circle was Karl Popper, whom Neurath nicknamed the "Official Opposition". Carnap and other Vienna Circle members, including Hahn and Neurath, saw need for a weaker criterion of meaningfulness than verifiability.[12] A radical "left" wing—led by Neurath and Carnap—began the program of "liberalization of empiricism", and they also emphasized fallibilism and pragmatics, which latter Carnap even suggested as empiricism s basis.[12] A conservative "right" wing—led by Schlick and Waismann—rejected both the liberalization of empiricism and the epistemological nonfoundationalism of a move from phenomenalism to physicalism.[12] As Neurath and somewhat Carnap posed science toward social reform, the split in Vienna Circle also reflected political views.[12] Berlin[edit] The Berlin Circle was led principally by Hans Reichenbach. Rivals[edit] Both Moritz Schlick and Rudolf Carnap had been influenced by and sought to define logical positivism versus the neo-Kantianism of Ernst Cassirer—the then leading figure of Marburg school, so called—and against Edmund Husserl s phenomenology. Logical positivists especially opposed Martin Heidegger s obscure metaphysics, the epitome of what logical positivism rejected. In the early 1930s, Carnap debated Heidegger over "metaphysical pseudosentences".[13] Despite its revolutionary aims, logical positivism was but one view among many vying within Europe, and logical positivists initially spoke their language.[13] Export[edit] As the movement s first emissary to the New World, Moritz Schlick visited Stanford University in 1929, yet otherwise remained in Vienna and was murdered at the University, reportedly by a deranged student, in 1936.[13] That year, a British attendee at some Vienna Circle meetings since 1933, A J Ayer saw his Language, Truth and Logic, written in English, import logical positivism to the Anglosphere. By then, Nazi political party s 1933 rise to power in Germany had triggered flight of intellectuals.[13] In exile in England, Otto Neurath died in 1945.[13] Rudolf Carnap, Hans Reichenbach, and Carl Hempel—Carnap s protégé who had studied in Berlin with Reichenbach—settled permanently in America.[13] Upon Germany s annexation of Austria in 1939, remaining logical positivists, many of whom were also Jewish, were targeted and continued flight. Logical positivism thus became dominant in the Anglosphere. Principles[edit] Analytic/synthetic gap[edit] Concerning reality, the necessary is a state true in all possible worlds—mere logical validity—whereas the contingent hinges on the way the particular world is. Concerning knowledge, the a priori is knowable before or without, whereas the a posteriori is knowable only after or through, relevant experience. Concerning statements, the analytic is true via terms arrangement and meanings, thus a tautology—true by logical necessity but uninformative about the world—whereas the synthetic adds reference to a state of facts, a contingency. In 1739, Hume cast a fork aggressively dividing "relations of ideas" from "matters of fact and real existence", such that all truths are of one type or the other.[14][15] By Hume s fork, truths by relations among ideas (abstract) all align on one side (analytic, necessary, a priori), whereas truths by states of actualities (concrete) always align on the other side (synthetic, contingent, a posteriori).[14] At any treatises containing neither, Hume orders, "Commit it then to the flames, for it can contain nothing but sophistry and illusion".[14] Thus awakened from "dogmatic slumber", Kant quested to answer Hume s challenge—but by explaining how metaphysics is possible. Eventually, in his 1781 work, Kant crossed the tines of Hume s fork to identify another range of truths by necessity—synthetic a priori, statements claiming states of facts but known true before experience—by arriving at transcendental idealism, attributing the mind a constructive role in phenomena by arranging sense data into the very experience space, time, and substance. Thus, Kant saved Newton s law of universal gravitation from Hume s problem of induction by finding uniformity of nature to be a priori knowledge. Logical positivists rejected Kant s synthethic a priori, and staked Hume s fork, whereby a statement is either analytic and a priori (thus necessary and verifiable logically) or synthetic and a posteriori (thus contingent and verifiable empirically).[14] Observation/theory gap[edit] Early, most logical positivists proposed that all knowledge is based on logical inference from simple "protocol sentences" grounded in observable facts. In the 1936 and 1937 papers "Testability and meaning", individual terms replace sentences as the units of meaning.[12] Further, theoretical terms no longer need to acquire meaning by explicit definition from observational terms the connection may be indirect, through a system of implicit definitions.[12] (Carnap also provides an important, pioneering discussion of disposition predicates.)[12] Cognitive meaningfulness[edit] Verification[edit] The logical positivists initial stance was that a statement is "cognitively meaningful" only if some finite procedure conclusively determines its truth.[16] By this verifiability principle, only statements verifiable either by their analyticity or by empiricism were cognitively meaningful. Metaphysics, ontology, as well as much of ethics failed this criterion, and so were found cognitively meaningless. Moritz Schlick, however, did not view ethical or aesthetic statements as cognitively meaningless.[17] Cognitive meaningfulness was variously defined having a truth value; corresponding to a possible state of affairs; naming a proposition; intelligible or understandable as are scientific statements.[18] Ethics and aesthetics were subjective preferences, while theology and other metaphysics contained "pseudostatements", neither true nor false. This meaningfulness was cognitive, although other types of meaningfulness—for instance, emotive, expressive, or figurative—occurred in metaphysical discourse, dismissed from further review. Thus, logical positivism indirectly asserted Hume s law, the principle that is statements cannot justify ought statements, but are separated by an unbridgeable gap. A J Ayer s 1936 book asserted an extreme variant—the boo/hooray doctrine—whereby all evaluative judgments are but emotional reactions. Confirmation[edit] In an important pair of papers in 1936 and 1937, "Testability and meaning", Carnap replaced verification with confirmation, on the view that although universal laws cannot be verified they can be confirmed.[12] Later, Carnap employed abundant logical and mathematical methods in researching inductive logic while seeking to provide and account of probability as "degree of confirmation", but was never able to formulate a model.[19] In Carnap s inductive logic, every universal law s degree of confirmation is always zero.[19] In any event, the precise formulation of what came to be called the "criterion of cognitive significance" took three decades (Hempel 1950, Carnap 1956, Carnap 1961).[12] Carl Hempel became a major critic within the logical positivism movement.[20] Hempel elucidated the paradox of confirmation. Weak verification[edit] The second edition of A J Ayer s book arrived in 1946, and discerned strong versus weak forms of verification. Ayer concluded, "A proposition is said to be verifiable, in the strong sense of the term, if, and only if, its truth could be conclusively established by experience", but is verifiable in the weak sense "if it is possible for experience to render it probable".[21] And yet, "no proposition, other than a tautology, can possibly be anything more than a probable hypothesis".[21] Thus, all are open to weak verification. Philosophy of science[edit] Upon the global defeat of Nazism, and removed from philosophy rivials for radical reform—Marburg neo-Kantianism, Husserlian phenomenology, Heidegger s "existential hermeneutics"—while hosted in the climate of American pragmatism and commonsense empiricism, the neopositivists shed much of their earlier, revolutionary zeal.[1] No longer crusading to revise traditional philosophy into a new scientific philosophy, they became respectable members of a new philosophy subdiscipline, philosophy of science.[1] Receiving support from Ernest Nagel, logical empiricists were especially influential in the social sciences.[22] Explanation[edit] Comtean positivism had viewed science as description, whereas the logical positivists posed science as explanation, perhaps to better realize the envisioned unity of science by covering not only fundamental science—that is, fundamental physics—but the special sciences, too, for instance biology, anthropology, psychology, sociology, and economics.[23] The most widely accepted concept of scientific explanation, held even by neopositivist critic Karl Popper, was the deductive-nomological model (DN model).[24] Yet DN model received its greatest explication by Carl Hempel, first in his 1942 article "The function of general laws in history", and more explicitly with Paul Oppenheim in their 1948 article "Studies in the logic of explanation".[24] In DN model, the stated phenomenon to be explained is the explanandum—which can be an event, law, or theory—whereas premises stated to explain it are the explanans.[25] Explanans must be true or highly confirmed, contain at least one law, and entail the explanandum.[25] Thus, given initial conditions C1, C2 . . . Cn plus general laws L1, L2 . . . Ln, event E is a deductive consequence and scientifically explained.[25] In DN model, a law is an unrestricted generalization by conditional proposition—If A, then B—and has empirical content testable.[26] (Differing from a merely true regularity—for instance, George always carries only $1 bills in his wallet—a law suggests what must be true,[27] and is consequent of a scientific theory s axiomatic structure.[28]) By the Humean empiricist view that humans observe sequence of events, not cause and effect—as causality and causal mechanisms are unobservable—DN model neglects causality beyond mere constant conjunction, first event A and then always event B.[23] Hempel s explication of DN model held natural laws—empirically confirmed regularities—as satisfactory and, if formulated realistically, approximating causal explanation.[25] In later articles, Hempel defended DN model and proposed a probabilistic explanation, inductive-statistical model (IS model).[25] DN model and IS model together form covering law model,[25] as named by a critic, William Dray.[29] (Derivation of statistical laws from other statistical laws goes to deductive-statistical model (DS model).)[30] Georg Hendrik von Wright, another critic, named it subsumption theory,[31] fitting the ambition of theory reduction. Unity of science[edit] Logical positivists were generally committed to "Unified Science", and sought a common language or, in Neurath s phrase, a "universal slang" whereby which all scientific propositions could be expressed.[32] The adequacy of proposals or fragments of proposals for such a language was often asserted on the basis of various "reductions" or "explications" of the terms of one special science to the terms of another, putatively more fundamental. Sometimes these reductions consisted of set-theoretic manipulations of a few logically primitive concepts (as in Carnap s Logical Structure of the World (1928)). Sometimes, these reductions consisted of allegedly analytic or a priori deductive relationships (as in Carnap s "Testability and meaning"). A number of publications over a period of thirty years would attempt to elucidate this concept. Theory reduction[edit] As in Comptean positivism s envisioned unity of science, neopositivists aimed to network all special sciences through the covering law model of scientific explanation. And ultimately, by supplying boundary conditions and supplying bridge laws within the covering law model, all the special sciences laws would reduce to fundamental physics, the fundamental science. Critics[edit] After the Second World War s close in 1945, key tenets of logical positivism, including its atomistic philosophy of science, the verifiability principle, and the fact/value gap, drew escalated criticism. It was clear that empirical claims cannot be verified to be universally true.[12] Thus, as initially stated, the verifiability criterion made universal statements meaningless, and even made statements beyond empiricism for technological but not conceptual reasons meaningless, which would pose significant problems for science.[20][33][34] These problems were recognized within the movement, which hosted attempted solutions—Carnap s move to confirmation, Ayer s acceptance of weak verification—but the program drew sustained criticism from a number of directions by the 1950s. Even philosophers disagreeing among themselves on which direction general epistemology ought to take, as well as on philosophy of science, agreed that the logical empiricist program was untenable, and it became viewed as selfcontradictory.[35] The verifiability criterion of meaning was itself unverified.[35] Notable critics were Nelson Goodman, Willard Van Orman Quine, Norwood Hanson, Karl Popper, Thomas Kuhn, J L Austin, Peter Strawson, Hilary Putnam, Ludwig von Mises, and Richard Rorty. Quine[edit] Although quite empiricist, American logician Willard Van Orman Quine published the 1951 paper "Two dogmas of empiricism",[36] which challenged conventional empiricist presumptions. Quine attacked the analytic/synthetic division, which the verificationist program had been hinged upon in order to entail, by consequence of Hume s fork, both necessity and apriocity. Quine s ontological relativity explained that every term in any statement has its meaning contingent on a vast network of knowledge and belief, the speaker s conception of the entire world. Quine later proposed naturalized epistemology. Hanson[edit] In 1958, Norwood Hanson s Patterns of Discovery undermined the division of observation versus theory,[37] as one can predict, collect, prioritize, and assess data only via some horizon of expectation set by a theory. Thus, any dataset—the direct observations, the scientific facts—is laden with theory. Popper[edit] An early, tenacious critic was Karl Popper whose 1934 book Logik der Forschung, arriving in English in 1959 as The Logic of Scientific Discovery, directly answered verificationism. Popper heeded the problem of induction as rendering empirical verification logically impossible.[38] And the deductive fallacy of affirming the consequent reveals any phenomenon s capacity to host over one logically possible explanation. Accepting scientific method as hypotheticodeduction, whose inference form is denying the consequent, Popper finds scientific method unable to proceed without falsifiable predictions. Popper thus identifies falsifiability to demarcate not meaningful from meaningless but simply scientific from unscientific—a label not in itself unfavorable. Popper finds virtue in metaphysics, required to develop new scientific theories. And an unfalsifiable—thus unscientific, perhaps metaphysical—concept in one era can later, through evolving knowledge or technology, become falsifiable, thus scientific. Popper also found science s quest for truth to rest on values. Popper disparages the pseudoscientific, which occurs when an unscientific theory is proclaimed true and coupled with seemingly scientific method by "testing" the unfalsifiable theory—whose predictions are confirmed by necessity—or when a scientific theory s falsifiable predictions are strongly falsified but the theory is persistently protected by "immunizing stratagems", such as the appendage of ad hoc clauses saving the theory or the recourse to increasingly speculative hypotheses shielding the theory. Popper s scientific epistemology is falsificationism, which finds that no number, degree, and variety of empirical successes can either verify or confirm scientific theory. Falsificationism finds science s aim as corroboration of scientific theory, which strives for scientific realism but accepts the maximal status of strongly corroborated verisimilitude ("truthlikeness"). Explicitly denying the positivist view that all knowledge is scientific, Popper developed the general epistemology critical rationalism, which finds human knowledge to evolve by conjectures and refutations. Popper thus acknowledged the value of the positivist movement, driving evolution of human understanding, but claimed that he had "killed positivism". Kuhn[edit] With his landmark, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Thomas Kuhn critically destabilized the verificationist program, which was presumed to call for foundationalism. (Actually, even in the 1930s, Otto Neurath had argued for nonfoundationalism via coherentism by likening science to a boat that scientists must rebuild at sea[citation needed].) Although Kuhn s thesis itself was attacked even by opponents of neopositivism, in the 1970 postscript to Structure, Kuhn asserted, at least, that there was no algorithm to science—and, on that, even most of Kuhn s critics agreed. Powerful and persuasive, Kuhn s book, unlike the vocabulary and symbols of logic s formal language, was written in natural language open to the laypersons.[39] Ironically, Kuhn s book was first published in a volume of Encyclopedia of Unified Science—a project begun by logical positivists—and some sense unified science, indeed, but by bringing it into the realm of historical and social assessment, rather than fitting it to the model of physics.[39] Kuhn s ideas were rapidly adopted by scholars in disciplines well outside natural sciences,[39] and, as logical empiricists were extremely influential in the social sciences,[22] ushered academia into postpositivism or postempiricism.[39] Putnam[edit] The "received view" operates on the correspondence rule that states, "The observational terms are taken as referring to specified phenomena or phenomenal properties, and the only interpretation given to the theoretical terms is their explicit definition provided by the correspondence rules".[11] According to Hilary Putnam, a former student of Reichenbach and of Carnap, the dichotomy of observational terms versus theoretical terms introduced a problem within scientific discussion that was nonexistent until this dichotomy was stated by logical positivists.[40] Putnam s four objections Something is referred to as "observational" if it is observable directly with our senses. Then an observation term cannot be applied to something unobservable. If this is the case, there are no observation terms. With Carnap s classification, some unobservable terms are not even theoretical and belong to neither observation terms nor theoretical terms. Some theoretical terms refer primarily to observation terms. Reports of observation terms frequently contain theoretical terms. A scientific theory may not contain any theoretical terms (an example of this is Darwin s original theory of evolution). Putman also alleged that positivism was actually a form of metaphysical idealism by its rejecting scientific theory s ability to garner knowledge about nature s unobservable aspects. With his "no miracles" argument, posed in 1974, Putnam asserted scientific realism, the stance that science achieves true—or approximately true—knowledge of the world as it exists independently of humans sensory experience. In this, Putnam opposed not only the positivism but other instrumentalism—whereby scientific theory as but a human tool to predict human observations—filling the void left by positivism s decline. Retrospect[edit] By the late 1960s, the neopositivist movement had clearly run its course.[41] Interviewed in the late 1970s, A J Ayer supposed that "the most important" defect "was that nearly all of it was false".[42][43] Although logical positivism tends to be recalled as a pillar of scientism,[44] Carl Hempel was key in establishing the philosophy subdiscipline philosophy of science[13] where Thomas Kuhn and Karl Popper brought in the era postpositivism.[39] John Passmore found logical positivism to be "dead, or as dead as a philosophical movement ever becomes".[42] Logical positivism s fall reopened debate over the metaphysical merit of scientific theory, whether it can offer knowledge of the world beyond human experience (scientific realism) versus whether it is but a human tool to predict human experience (instrumentalism).[45][46] Meanwhile, it became popular among philosophers to rehash the faults and failures of logical positivism without investigation of it.[47] Thereby, logical positivism has been generally misrepresented, sometimes severely.[48] Arguing for their own views, often framed versus logical positivism, many philosophers have reduced logical positivism to simplisms and stereotypes, especially the notion of logical positivism as a type of foundationalism.[48] In any event, the movement helped anchor analytic philosophy in the Anglosphere, and returned Britain to empiricism. Minus logical positivists, tremendously influential outside philosophy, especially in psychology and social sciences, intellectual life of the 20th century would be unrecognizable.[13] Footnotes[edit] ^ Jump up to a b c Michael Friedman, Reconsidering Logical Positivism (New York Cambridge University Press, 1999), p xiv. Jump up ^ See "Vienna Circle" in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Jump up ^ Smith, L.D. (1986). Behaviorism and Logical Positivism A Reassessment of the Alliance. Stanford University Press. p. 314. ISBN 9780804713016. LCCN 85030366. The secondary and historical literature on logical positivism affords substantial grounds for concluding that logical positivism failed to solve many of the central problems it generated for itself. Prominent among the unsolved problems was the failure to find an acceptable statement of the verifiability (later confirmability) criterion of meaningfulness. Until a competing tradition emerged (about the late 1950 s), the problems of logical positivism continued to be attacked from within that tradition. But as the new tradition in the philosophy of science began to demonstrate its effectiveness—by dissolving and rephrasing old problems as well as by generating new ones—philosophers began to shift allegiances to the new tradition, even though that tradition has yet to receive a canonical formulation. Jump up ^ Bunge, M.A. (1996). Finding Philosophy in Social Science. Yale University Press. p. 317. ISBN 9780300066067. LCCN lc96004399. To conclude, logical positivism was progressive compared with the classical positivism of Ptolemy, Hume, d Alembert, Compte, John Stuart Mill, and Ernst Mach. It was even more so by comparison with its contemporary rivals—neo-Thomisism, neo-Kantianism, intuitionism, dialectical materialism, phenomenology, and existentialism. However, neo-positivism failed dismally to give a faithful account of science, whether natural or social. It failed because it remained anchored to sense-data and to a phenomenalist metaphysics, overrated the power of induction and underrated that of hypothesis, and denounced realism and materialism as metaphysical nonsense. Although it has never been practiced consistently in the advanced natural sciences and has been criticized by many philosophers, notably Popper (1959 [1935], 1963), logical positivism remains the tacit philosophy of many scientists. Regrettably, the anti-positivism fashionable in the metatheory of social science is often nothing but an excuse for sloppiness and wild speculation. Jump up ^ "Popper, Falsifiability, and the Failure of Positivism". 7 August 2000. Retrieved 30 June 2012. The upshot is that the positivists seem caught between insisting on the V.C. [Verifiability Criterion]—but for no defensible reason—or admitting that the V.C. requires a background language, etc., which opens the door to relativism, etc. In light of this dilemma, many folk—especially following Popper s "last-ditch" effort to "save" empiricism/positivism/realism with the falsifiability criterion—have agreed that positivism is a dead-end. Jump up ^ For example, compare "Proposition 4.024" of Tractatus, asserting that we understand a proposition when we know the outcome if it is true, with Schlick s asserting, "To state the circumstances under which a proposition is true is the same as stating its meaning". Jump up ^ "Positivismus und realismus", Erkenntnis 3 1–31, English trans in Sarkar, Sahotra, ed, Logical Empiricism at its Peak Schlick, Carnap, and Neurath (New York Garland Publishing, 1996), p 38. Jump up ^ For summary of the effect of Tractatus on logical positivists, see the Entwicklung der Thesen des "Wiener Kreises". ^ Jump up to a b c d e Jaako Hintikka, "Logicism", in Andrew D Irvine, ed, Philosophy of Mathematics (Burlington MA North Holland, 2009), pp 283–84. Jump up ^ See Rudolf Carnap, "The elimination Of metaphysics through logical analysis of language", Erkenntnis, 1932;2, reprinted in Logical Positivism, Alfred Jules Ayer, ed, (New York Free Press, 1959), pp 60–81. ^ Jump up to a b Frederick Suppe, "The positivist model of scientific theories", in Scientific Inquiry, Robert Klee, ed, (New York Oxford University Press, 1999), pp 16-24. ^ Jump up to a b c d e f g h i j Sarkar, S; Pfeifer, J (2005). The Philosophy of Science An Encyclopedia 1. Taylor Francis. p. 83. ISBN 9780415939270. ^ Jump up to a b c d e f g h Friedman, Reconsidering Logical Positivism (Cambridge U P, 1999), p xii. ^ Jump up to a b c d Antony G Flew, A Dictionary of Philosophy, rev 2nd edn (New York St Martin s Press, 1984), "Hume s fork", p 156. Jump up ^ Helen B Mitchell, Roots of Wisdom A Tapestry of Philosophical Traditions A Tapestry of Philosophical Traditions, 6th edn (Boston Wadsworth, 2011), "Hume s fork and logical positivism", pp 249-50. Jump up ^ For a classic survey of other versions of verificationism, see Carl G Hempel, "Problems and changes in the empiricist criterion of meaning", Revue Internationale de Philosophie, 1950;41 41-63. Jump up ^ See Moritz Schlick, "The future Of philosophy", in The Linguistic Turn, Richard Rorty, ed, (Chicago University of Chicago Press, 1992), pp 43-53. Jump up ^ Examples of these different views can be found in Scheffler s Anatomy of Inquiry, Ayer s Language, Truth, and Logic, Schlick s "Positivism and realism" (reprinted in Sarkar 1996 and Ayer 1959), and Carnap s Philosophy and Logical Syntax. ^ Jump up to a b Mauro Murzi "Rudolf Carnap (1891—1970)", Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 12 Apr 2001. ^ Jump up to a b Fetzer, James (2012). Edward N. Zalta, ed. "Carl Hempel". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2012 ed.). It would fall to Hempel to become perhaps the most astute critic of that movement and to contribute to its refinement as logical empiricism... Hempel himself attained a certain degree of prominence as a critic of this movement... The analytic/synthetic distinction and the observational/theoretical distinction were tied together by the verifiability criterion of meaningfulness... By this standard, sentences that are non-analytic but also non-verifiable, including various theological or metaphysical assertions concerning God or The Absolute, qualify as cognitively meaningless. This was viewed as a desirable result. But, as Hempel would demonstrate, its scope was far too sweeping, since it also rendered meaningless the distinctively scientific assertions made by laws and theories... The analytic/synthetic distinction took a decided hit when the noted logician, Willard van Orman Quine, published "Two dogmas of empiricism" (1953), challenging its adequacy... While the analytic/synthetic distinction appears to be justifiable in modeling important properties of languages, the observational/theoretical distinction does not fare equally well. Within logical positivism, observation language was assumed to consist of names and predicates whose applicability or not can be ascertained, under suitable conditions, by means of direct observation... Karl Popper (1965, 1968), however, would carry the argument in a different direction by looking at the ontic nature of properties... Hempel (1950, 1951), meanwhile, demonstrated that the verifiability criterion could not be sustained. Since it restricts empirical knowledge to observation sentences and their deductive consequences, scientific theories are reduced to logical constructions from observables. In a series of studies about cognitive significance and empirical testability, he demonstrated that the verifiability criterion implies that existential generalizations are meaningful, but that universal generalizations are not, even though they include general laws, the principal objects of scientific discovery. Hypotheses about relative frequencies in finite sequences are meaningful, but hypotheses concerning limits in infinite sequences are not. The verifiability criterion thus imposed a standard that was too strong to accommodate the characteristic claims of science and was not justifiable... Both theoretical and dispositional predicates, which refer to non-observables, posed serious problems for the positivist position, since the verifiability criterion implies they must be reducible to observables or are empirically meaningless... The need to dismantle the verifiability criterion of meaningfulness together with the demise of the observational/theoretical distinction meant that logical positivism no longer represented a rationally defensible position. At least two of its defining tenets had been shown to be without merit. Since most philosophers believed that Quine had shown the analytic/synthetic distinction was also untenable, moreover, many concluded that the enterprise had been a total failure. Among the important benefits of Hempel s critique, however, was the production of more general and flexible criteria of cognitive significance... Hempel suggested multiple criteria for assessing the cognitive significance of different theoretical systems, where significance is not categorical but rather a matter of degree... The elegance of Hempel s study laid to rest any lingering aspirations for simple criteria of cognitive significance and signaled the demise of logical positivism as a philosophical movement. Precisely what remained, however, was in doubt. Presumably, anyone who rejected one or more of the three principles defining positivism—the analytic/synthetic distinction, the observational/theoretical distinction, and the verifiability criterion of significance—was not a logical positivist. The precise outlines of its philosophical successor, which would be known as "logical empiricism", were not entirely evident. Perhaps this study came the closest to defining its intellectual core. Those who accepted Hempel s four criteria and viewed cognitive significance as a matter of degree were members, at least in spirit. But some new problems were beginning to surface with respect to Hempel s covering-law explication of explanation and old problems remained from his studies of induction, the most remarkable of which was known as "the paradox of confirmation". ^ Jump up to a b Ayer, Language, Truth and Logic, 1946, p 50–51. ^ Jump up to a b Novick, That Noble Dream (Cambridge U P, 1988), p 546. ^ Jump up to a b James Woodward, "Scientific explanation"—sec 1 "Background and introduction", in Zalta EN, ed,The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Winter 2011 edn ^ Jump up to a b James Woodward, "Scientific explanation"—Article overview, Zalta EN, ed, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Winter 2011 edn ^ Jump up to a b c d e f Suppe, Structure of Scientific Theories (U Illinois P, 1977), pp 619–21. Jump up ^ Eleonora Montuschi, Objects in Social Science (London New York Continuum, 2003), pp 61–62. Jump up ^ Bechtel, Philosophy of Science (Lawrence Erlbaum, 1988), p 25. Jump up ^ Bechtel, Philosophy of Science (Lawrence Erlbaum, 1988), pp 27–28. Jump up ^ Georg Hendrik von Wright, Explanation and Understanding (Ithaca NY Cornell University Press, 1971), p 11. Jump up ^ Stuart Glennan, p 276, in Sarkar S Pfeifer J, eds, The Philosophy of Science An Encyclopedia, Volume 1 A–M (New York Routledge, 2006). Jump up ^ Manfred Riedel, pp 3–4, in Manninen J Tuomela R, eds, Essays on Explanation and Understanding Studies in the Foundation of Humanities and Social Sciences (Dordrecht D Reidel Publishing, 1976). Jump up ^ For a review of "unity of science" to, see Gregory Frost-Arnold, "The large-scale structure of logical empiricism Unity of science and the rejection of metaphysics". Jump up ^ John Vicker (2011). Edward N Zalta, ed. "The problem of induction". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2011 ed.). This initial formulation of the criterion was soon seen to be too strong; it counted as meaningless not only metaphysical statements but also statements that are clearly empirically meaningful, such as that all copper conducts electricity and, indeed, any universally quantified statement of infinite scope, as well as statements that were at the time beyond the reach of experience for technical, and not conceptual, reasons, such as that there are mountains on the back side of the moon. These difficulties led to modification of the criterion The latter to allow empirical verification if not in fact then at least in principle, the former to soften verification to empirical confirmation. Jump up ^ Uebel, Thomas (2008). Edward N. Zalta, ed. "Vienna Circle". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2008 ed.). What Carnap later called the "liberalization of empiricism" was underway and different camps became discernible within the Circle... In the first place, this liberalization meant the accommodation of universally quantified statements and the return, as it were, to salient aspects of Carnap s 1928 conception. Everybody had noted that the Wittgensteinian verificationist criterion rendered universally quantified statements meaningless. Schlick (1931) thus followed Wittgenstein s own suggestion to treat them instead as representing rules for the formation of verifiable singular statements. (His abandonment of conclusive verifiability is indicated only in Schlick 1936a.) A second element that began to do so soon was the recognition of the problem of the irreducibility of disposition terms to observation terms... A third element was that disagreement arose as to whether the in-principle verifiability or support turned on what was merely logically possible or on what was nomologically possible, as a matter of physical law etc. A fourth element, finally, was that differences emerged as to whether the criterion of significance was to apply to all languages or whether it was to apply primarily to constructed, formal languages. Schlick retained the focus on logical possibility and natural languages throughout, but Carnap had firmly settled his focus on nomological possibility and constructed languages by the mid-thirties. Concerned with natural language, Schlick (1932, 1936a) deemed all statements meaningful for which it was logically possible to conceive of a procedure of verification; concerned with constructed languages only, Carnap (1936-37) deemed meaningful only statements for whom it was nomologically possible to conceive of a procedure of confirmation of disconfirmation. Many of these issues were openly discussed at the Paris congress in 1935. Already in 1932 Carnap had sought to sharpen his previous criterion by stipulating that those statements were meaningful that were syntactically well-formed and whose non-logical terms were reducible to terms occurring in the basic observational evidence statements of science. While Carnap s focus on the reduction of descriptive terms allows for the conclusive verification of some statements, his criterion also allowed universally quantified statements to be meaningful, provided they were syntactically and terminologically correct (1932a, §2). It was not until one of his Paris addresses, however, that Carnap officially declared the meaning criterion to be mere confirmability. Carnap s new criterion required neither verification nor falsification but only partial testability so as now to include not only universal statements but also the disposition statements of science... Though plausible initially, the device of introducing non-observational terms in this way gave rise to a number of difficulties which impugned the supposedly clear distinctions between logical and empirical matters and analytic and synthetic statements (Hempel 1951). Independently, Carnap himself (1939) soon gave up the hope that all theoretical terms of science could be related to an observational base by such reduction chains. This admission raised a serious problem for the formulation of a meaning criterion how was one to rule out unwanted metaphysical claims while admitting as significant highly abstract scientific claims? ^ Jump up to a b Hilary Putnam (1985). Philosophical Papers Volume 3, Realism and Reason. Philosophical Papers. Cambridge University Press. p. 184. ISBN 9780521313940. LCCN lc82012903. Jump up ^ W V O Quine, "Two dogmas of empiricism", Philosophical Review 1951;60 20-43, collected in Quine, From a Logical Point of View (Cambridge MA Harvard University Press, 1953). Jump up ^ Novick, That Noble Dream (Cambridge U P, 1988), p 527. Jump up ^ Popper then denies that science requires inductive inference or that it actually exists, although most philosophers believe it exists and that science requires it [Samir Okasha, The Philosophy of Science A Very Short Introduction (NY OUP, 2002), p 23]. ^ Jump up to a b c d e Novick, That Noble Dream (Cambridge U P, 1988), pp 526-27. Jump up ^ Hilary Putnam, "Problems with the observational/theoretical distinction", in Scientific Inquiry, Robert Klee, ed (New York, USA Oxford University Press, 1999), pp 25-29. Jump up ^ Nicholas G Fotion (1995). Ted Honderich, ed. The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford Oxford University Press. p. 508. ISBN 0-19-866132-0. ^ Jump up to a b Hanfling, Oswald (2003). "Logical Positivism". Routledge History of Philosophy. Routledge. pp. 193f. Jump up ^ "Ayer on Logical Positivism Section 4". 6 30. Jump up ^ Stahl et al, Webs of Reality (Rutgers U P, 2002), p 180. Jump up ^ Hilary Putnam, "What is realism?", in Jarrett Leplin, ed, Scientific Realism (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London University of California Press, 1984), p 140. Jump up ^ Ruth Lane, "Positivism, scientific realism and political science Recent developments in the philosophy of science", Journal of Theoretical Politics, 1996 Jul8(3) 361-82, abstract. Jump up ^ Friedman, Reconsidering Logical Positivism (Cambridge, 1999), p 1. ^ Jump up to a b Friedman, Reconsidering Logical Positivism (Cambridge, 1999), p 2.
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Weapons of the Gods The Shield of Pallas Charly Bench?Michael Brown The Greatest Years Michael Brown The Pitiless Day or the Lykaoneia S. Michael Brown? Centenary Sermons Michael B. Brown? You Are Motivated By What You Know What's Driving You? Michael A. Brown Sr.? You Are Motivated By What You Know What's Driving You? Michael A. Brown Sr.? Advanced Control Unleashed Plant Performance Management for Optimum Benefit Terrence L. Blevins?Gregory K. McMillan?Willy K. Wojsznis?Michael W. Brown? Die Nigger Die! A Political Autobiography Ekwueme Michael Thelwell?Jamil Al-Amin?H. Rap Brown? It Works for Us! The Clergy's Church Growth Handbook Michael B. Brown? The Day the Bronx Died Michael Henry Brown? Object-Relational Dbmss Tracking the Next Great Wave (The Morgan Kaufmann Series in Data Management Systems) Michael Stonebraker?Dorothy Moore?Paul Brown? Toxic Torts and Product Liability Changing Tactics for Changing Times (Bna Special Report) Michael A. Brown Sr.? Prayer to the Warrior Michael H. Brown? Socialism Past and Future Michael Harrington? Three Rivers of France Freda White?Michael Busselle? The Temple and the Lodge Michael Baigent?Richard Leigh? The Shining Princess and Other Japanese Legends Eric Quayle?Michael Foreman? Our Baby A Book of Records and Memories Michael Hague? End of the American Gospel Enterprise Michael Brown Whatever Happened to the Power of God Michael L. Brown? How Saved Are We? Michael L. Brown? Our Hands Are Stained With Blood Michael L. Brown?
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STARITE THE CURSED CREW! 1 THE CREW HAS BECOME CURSED! GIVE EACH CREW MEMBER SOMETHING THAT THEY USED TO LOVE! THE WARRIOR OF THIS GROUP ENJOYED MEDIEVAL WEAPONS! HINT1 GIVE THE WARRIOR OF OUR GROUP A MEDIEVAL WEAPON. HINT2 THE BONY MATE WANTS A SHARP WEAPON. HINT3 BREAK THE CURSE BY GIVING THE SKELETON A SWORD. クリア可能な言葉 SWORD 2 THE FIRST CURSE HAS BEEN BROKEN! THE NEXT CREW MEMBER LOVED HIS FACIAL HAIR, BUT NOW HE IS ALMOST ENTIRELY BALD! GIVE HIM FACIAL HAIR TO BE PROUD OF! HINT1 GIVE OUR STRINGY HAIRED CREW MEMBER SOME FACIAL HAIR. HINT2 THE ZOMBIFIED SAILOR NEEDS SOMETHING TO WARM HIS FACE. HINT3 THE ZOMBIE DESIRES A BEARD. クリア可能な言葉 BEARD 3 WELL DONE! ANOTHER CURSE WAS LIFTED! THIS NEXT CREW MEMBER LOVED HIS OWN REFLECTION, BUT THE CURSE HAS TAKEN HIS BODY AWAY! SHOW HIM WHAT HE LOOKS LIKE! HINT1 SHOW THE WISPY CREW MEMBER HIS REFLECTION. HINT2 THE WISP WANTS TO SEE ITSELF AGAIN. HINT3 THE WISP NEEDS A MIRROR. クリア可能な言葉 MIRROR 4 THREE CURSES DOWN! THE NEXT CREW MEMBER WAS THE SMARTEST OF THE BUNCH! SADLY, THE CURSE HAS REMOVED HIS BRAIN! USE THE NOTEPAD TO EDUCATE HIM! HINT1 TEACH THE BRAINLESS CREW MEMBER. HINT2 THIS GHOUL SEEMS TO HAVE LOST ITS BRAIN. HINT3 GIVE THE GHOUL A TEACHER. クリア可能な言葉 TEACHER 5 THE LAST CURSE RESTS UPON THE CAPTAIN OF THE SHIP! REUNITE HIM WITH POLLY! HINT1 REUNITE ME WITH POLLY. HINT2 MY POLLY LOVED EATING CRACKERS. HINT3 GIVE ME MY PARROT, POLLY. クリア可能な言葉 WHERE CAN I FIND SOME SAILORS? 1 THE SLACKER HAS INHERITED AN EMPTY PIRATE SHIP! HELP BY MAKING PEOPLE THAT CAN RUN THE SHIP! START BY PLACING SOMEONE WITH SAILING EXPERIENCE AT THE WHEEL! HINT1 PLACE SOMEONE WHO CAN COMMAND THE SHIP AT THE WHEEL. HINT2 THE CAPTAIN SHOULD BE SOMEONE WHO CAN LEAD THE CREW. HINT3 AN ADMIRAL MIGHT MAKE A GOOD LEADER FOR THE SHIP. クリア可能な言葉 ADMIRAL 2 NEXT WE NEED SOMEONE TO MANAGE THE TREASURE! WRITE SOMEONE WHO IS GOOD WITH MONEY! HINT1 PLACE SOMEONE WHO IS GOOD WITH MONEY INSIDE OF THE TREASURY. HINT2 WE COULD USE SOMEONE WHO WORKS IN A BANK. HINT3 AN ACCOUNTANT WOULD KNOW HOW TO HANDLE THE MONEY. クリア可能な言葉 ACCOUNTANT 3 DEFENDING THE SHIP IS A MAJOR PRIORITY! PLACE SOMEONE WHO IS FAMILIAR WITH WEAPONS INSIDE THE ARMORY! HINT1 THE ARMORY NEEDS SOMEONE WHO IS GOOD WITH WEAPONS. HINT2 MEMBERS OF THE ARMY KNOW HOW TO USE WEAPONS. HINT3 EVERY KNIGHT KNOWS HOW TO WIELD A SWORD. クリア可能な言葉 KNIGHT 4 SAILING THE HIGH SEAS CAN REALLY BUILD UP AN APPETITE! PLACE SOMEONE WHO KNOWS HOW TO COOK IN THE KITCHEN! HINT1 THE KITCHEN NEEDS SOMEONE TO RUN THE OVEN. HINT2 WE NEED SOMEONE WHO WENT TO CULINARY SCHOOL. HINT3 A TOP NOTCH CHEF WOULD PROVIDE GREAT MEALS EVERY DAY. クリア可能な言葉 TOP NOTCH CHEF 5 HOW CAN WE HAVE A PIRATE SHIP WITH AN EMPTY BRIG? PLACE A CAPTIVE IN THE PRISON! HINT1 WHAT GOOD IS A PRISON IF IT IS EMPTY? HINT2 PIRATES USUALLY KIDNAP PEOPLE FROM THE ROYAL FAMILY. HINT3 WE NEED A REAL DAMSEL IN DISTRESS. クリア可能な言葉 DAMSEL 6 THE CREW IS ABOUT COMPLETE! NOW PLACE SOMEONE WHO CAN HELP NAVIGATE THE SHIP IN THE CROW S NEST! HINT1 THE CROW S NEST NEEDS SOMEONE TO NAVIGATE. HINT2 WE NEED SOMEONE WHO CAN SEE A LONG DISTANCE. HINT3 ELVES HAVE GREAT VISION, BUT AREN T MUCH FOR TALKING. クリア可能な言葉 ELF(FANTASY) SHARDS PICKING SIDES! PIRATE I NEED A TOOL FROM MY TRADE TO FINALLY SETTLE THIS ARGUMENT! クリア可能な言葉 GUN PEG LEG! LEGLESS PIRATE GIVE ME SOMETHING THAT I CAN CRAFT INTO A PEG LEG! クリア可能な言葉 LEG CROW S NEST! CROW THIS CROWS NEST IS LACKING! GIVE ME SOMETHING TO CONSTRUCT A PROPER NEST! クリア可能な言葉 NEST NEED MORE AMMO! YARRR WE RE RUNNING OUT OF AMMO! THROW SOMETHING IN THE CANNON! クリア可能な言葉 CANNON BALL REPLACEMENT PARROT! SEAGULL I LL NEVER BE ACCEPTED AS A PARROT! クリア可能な言葉 GREEN SCURVY DOGS! GREEN CONQUISTADOR GIVE ME SOMETHING TO EAT THAT PREVENTS SCURVY! クリア可能な言葉 VITAMIN C STEALTHY ESCAPE! ASSASSIN GIVE ME SOMETHING TO HIDE INSIDE SO I CAN MAKE MY ESCAPE! クリア可能な言葉 BOX TREASURE MAP! ROGUE FIND THE TREASURE MAP AND BRING IT TO ME! クリア可能な言葉 SORE LOSER! LEGIONNAIRE WE NEED SOME PIECES TO PLAY A GAME! クリア可能な言葉 CHESS A DIFFERENT KIND OF PIRACY! LAPTOP PREVENT INTERNET PIRACY! クリア可能な言葉 POLICE SWAB THE DUCK? DEAF SAILOR GIVE ME SOMETHING TO SWAB THE DUCK! クリア可能な言葉 TOWEL
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製品情報 ASCII.JP PROMISE製、SAS/SATAコントローラ。 他社製のSASコントローラよりもかなり価格が安い。 SAS入門的なカードに良い? 私は、パソコンハウス東映にてバルクを購入。8980円でした。 ケーブル代を考えるとかなりお得だと思います。(ケーブル2本で5000円とかするから。) このケーブルはSATAにも接続出来ます。普通のSATA用よりもガッチリ固定出来るのでGOOD。 同チップを搭載したマザーボードも登場 MSI K9A2 Platinum ASCII.JP 付属品は 説明書 ドライバCD-ROM SASケーブル*2本 ロープロファイルブラケット 設定自体は非常に簡単で、アレイを作るだけです。 その他のストレージ関係のコントローラとぶつかったりしますが、それを抜きにして考えると敷居は低いでしょう。 うちの環境ではSATAのHDDをIDE互換モードに変更しないとコントローラ同士がぶつかって起動しませんでした。 RAIDカードを複数挿す場合は要注意。 BOOT順について TX*650でアレイを作成すると、M/BのBIOSでHDDとして認識されます。 その後、M/BのBIOSでBOOT順を設定してあげれば良いでしょう。 その他コントローラとの干渉について 私は、P5N-E SLIにて使用していますが、 JMicronのRAIDコントローラをBIOSでdisable SouthBridgeに繋いでいるSATAHDDでも、SATAモードではなくIDEモードに変更 をしないと、干渉して起動しませんでした。 システムはSASでRAID0、データはSATAでRAID0/5と考えている方は注意が必要です。 K9A2 Platinumに搭載されていますので、経験者はこれから増えてくると思います。 2ch自作板のK9A2関係のスレなどをよく見て、複数コントローラの共存が出来る出来ないを 判断して使用した方が良いと思います。 TWO-TOP K9A2 Platinum ユーザーコメント ヤス氏の投稿より抜粋 00001454 ヤスさん 07/11/20 午後 11 52 46 (Phenom は予算立たず) SAS ready は本当? てなことで試してみました。動きました。(その1) SAS readyと言ってもPROMISEのFastTrak TX2650(\13,780(税込)),TX4650で使用されているRAIDコントローラ,PDC42819をオンボードに実装しているというのが実態。添付のケーブル代等を除けば、25000円程度のものと思われる。 でもSASは動きました。単体カードで動くのだから、逆に実績は十分と思か。但し、SCSIコントローラとしての性能は?です。細かい設定はできないのと思います(恐らくレジストリに色々あるとは思いますが)。私もしばらくSCSIを使っていないので評価できません。 材料 OS XP(SP2) CPU Athlon64 X2 5000+ Black Edition MB これ ハードDISK構成(HDBENCHの表示から) ATI IDE Controller * Hitachi HDS721616PLA380 SATA 160G(起動DISK) * WDC WD360ADFD-00NLR1 SATA 36G Promise FastTrak PDC42819 Controller *マザーボードの添付CD-ROMのDRVをインストール * Promise 1+0 JBOD 1.10 = HGST HUS151436VLS300 SAS *容量 36GB/回転数 15000rpm 安くても 2万円を少し超えるくらいから。 SASケーブル CS Electronics SAS-7P82-1/.5m 7pin-SFF-8482 50cm 7pin ホストから、SFF-8482 29pin ドライブコネクタに接続するケーブル。電源4ピンはコネクタ両端15cm 1本 (税込)\2,780 オリオスペックで入手。 (ちなみにTX2650 TX4650には添付されていことからSATAと共通? こんなケーブル必要ないかもしれませんがとにかく入手) 下に測定した値を載せますが、「デフォルトで計ったらこれ」程度の信憑性です。 あまり参考にしないでください。比較のためWD Raptorの値も一緒に 00001455 ヤスさん 07/11/20 午後 11 54 26 その2 CrystalDiskMark 1.0 (C) 2007 hiyohiyo Crystal Dew World http //crystalmark.info/ ================== HGST HUS151436VLS300 SAS 36G *うるさいです。個人的にはWD Raptorより気にならない音ですが。 DATA DISK 何も入っていない Sequential Read 92.482 MB/s Sequential Write 82.125 MB/s Random Read 512KB 58.264 MB/s Random Write 512KB 53.140 MB/s Random Read 4KB 1.665 MB/s Random Write 4KB 1.529 MB/s ================== WDC WD360ADFD-00NLR1 SATA 36G(SB600 IDEモード) DATA DISK 何も入っていない Sequential Read 87.425 MB/s Sequential Write 87.342 MB/s Random Read 512KB 39.498 MB/s Random Write 512KB 67.746 MB/s Random Read 4KB 42.615 MB/s Random Write 4KB 2.458 MB/s ================== ハードDISKの値段を考えると割りにあわないけど、SB600の嫌いな方、SASを試してみたい方にはいいかもしれません。通風をじゃましないし。 このあと、vistaのインストールDISKとして使用してみました。マザーボードのCD-ROMのPROMISEのフォルダー内の txtsetup.oemがあるディレクトリの中身をUSBメモリー等にコピーして使用します。vistaの場合はinfが有効みたいで、i386フォルダーを選択してやります。 起動に時間がやたらかかるので何か間違ええたかも知れません(XPのCD-ROMを使ってしまったのは事実ですが。) 結構快適に動きます。家族に「パソコン壊れたの?」て言われるかもしれませんが。 参考文献 2ch自作板 SAS/SCSI総合スレッド28 抜粋 2ch自作板 SAS/SCSI総合スレッド28 抜粋2
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rmMakeCompositeModel 異なる視野角のpRF modelを、 variance explained の高いデータを優先的に組み合わせる rxNudgeFuntionalsOntoInplanse rxAlignと同じようなGUIを用いて、Inplaneとfunctional dataの間のズレを補正する computeCrossScanCorrelationMap 最早GUIから選べる スキャン間の各ボクセルにおけるTimeSeriesの相関係数を算出する 複数ある場合は全部の組み合わせを計算してその後それを平均する Detrendしてから計算するので、結構時間がかかる 相関の高いボクセルは灰白質上に存在することが確認できるため、 かなり有用な情報を与えることが推測される mrGrayConvertClassToNifty mrGrayがLinuxでは動かないので、過去の遺産をITKsnapで使うためのコード 詳しくはlabwikiの最後のほうに詳しく書いてある writeParfile GLM解析に必要なparfileを作る niftiFromDicom readFileNifti DicomからNiftyを作るときにつかう 備忘録 VOLUME{}.nodes( ,[2 1 3]) = [x y z] VOLUME{}.nodes( ,6) = layer % nodes 8xN array of % Nx(x,y,z,num_edges,edge_offset,layer,dist,pqindex).