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https://w.atwiki.jp/decoboco/pages/82.html
『decoboco』メンバー表 私たち『decoboco』のメンバーを紹介いたします♪ ※名前をクリックすると、My Lotroサイトのキャラクターページを開くことができます! ※現在、がんばって作成・更新中です^^; 写真撮影など協力してくださいね♪ 名前(Name) クラス(Class) 種族(Race) 生産(Crafting) / 生産ギルド(Crafting Guild) Photo Altキャラクター名 一言 (趣味・特技など) 自宅住所 Aeglos/Naryaでのキャラクター名 Pineapples MNS ホビット Yeoman(お百姓) / Cook(調理師) --- 趣味は帽子集め、特技はネバネバ釣りとウシウナリの棍棒でボコボコ叩くこと!! 良物件探してます! Pineapple(MNS), パイン(CPT), Benzie(LRM) 他 Melethien RNK エルフ Tinker(冒険家) / Jeweller(宝飾師) Thorel(GRD), Emalion(HNT), Oslaf(CPT), Rossanne(MNS), Valentia(LRM) JP鯖ではネコ語でおなじみのアリルですにゃ。ちなみにNAでは6赤プレイで、6人全員を同時に育てていますにゃ。みなさま、みぃをよろしくおねがいしますにゃ。 良物件探してます! アリル(HNT) Bernkastel MNS ホビット Explorer(探検家) / Tailor(仕立屋) --- 演奏するのが好きです^^ 一緒に中つ国を遊ぼう(o^- )b 良物件探してます! エメラルダス(CHN), 翠玉(GRD)花梨(MNS), 宗純(LRM), 義元(HNT), オータム(CPT), グラード(BUR) Biancana MNS ホビット Tinker(冒険家) / Jeweller(宝飾師) Ranmaru(RNK), Marrone(CHN) 日夜色々研究してます! おしゃべり大好き!! 戦い大好き!! 1 Wending Way, Butterbottle, Shire Bianca(MNS), 蘭丸(CHN) Noar LRM エルフ Explorer(探検家) / Tailor(仕立屋) --- Hi,there!! 良物件探してます! Renna(MNS) Esargel LRM 人間 Explorer(探検家) / Tailor(仕立屋) 育てる予定はまだありません くまー達にエサをあげるLRMなので｢エサあげる｣って名前です…。 良物件を探してます! Seaquin(飼育員) Isillwen LRM エルフ Historian(歴史家) / Weaponsmith(鍛冶屋) Linnwen(HNT), Isilliel(RNK), Ainelind(MNS) 特技は廃上げとお金集め(笑) 今後は演奏も楽しみたいです。 1 Twinfall Path, Imrath-e-Menel, Falathlorn Isilwen(LRM), Linwe(HNT), Ainelind(MNS), Andarien(CPT) Risko HNT エルフ Explorer(探検家) / Tailor(仕立屋) ??? Hi,there!! 良物件を探してます! リスコ Gorasu CHN 人間 Explorer(探検家) / Tailor(仕立屋) Eresu(WDM), Reimia(RNK) 生産,クエとかお手伝いするのがすきです 良物件を探してます! ゴラス(CPT) Loji GRD 人間 Armourer(防具職人) / Metalsmith(鋳造師) Thiefco(BUR) 趣味は功績集め、特技は空中浮遊です☆（ゝω・）v 良物件を探してます! ロジ(GRD), アメトリン(MNS), シフコ(BUR), ロジィ(CHN) Rarien MNS エルフ Tinker(風来人) / Jeweller(宝飾師) Lothmenel(HNT), Rarae(MNS) やはり音楽！演奏をまた楽しみたいと思っています。作成abcを順次ブログにUPしています^^ 1 Chalk Road, Sowford, Shire ラリエン(MNS), ラピスレイズリ(HNT), エスクェン(CPT), ロスメネル(LRM), ララア(BUR) Dolory MNS ホビット Armourer(防具職人) / Metalsmith(鋳造師) Dolorean(MNS), Dolowyn(WDN) なんと言っても演奏と編曲です。 良物件を探してます! Dolory(MNS), Dolory(BUR) Masayan HNT エルフ Woodsman(木こり) / Woodworker(木工師) --- ＮＡでも「いつでもクエはＭＡＸだぜー」＾＾ 赤いイケメンは仮の姿・・・その正体は「オチは絶対外さない西方国産の○ー○族」 拉致された僕を見かけても、気にせず放置してくださいm(__)m 良物件を探してます! Masayan(HNT) Rumdir HNT エルフ Explorer(探検家) / Tailor(仕立屋) --- へっぽこHNTですが、よろしく！ 良物件を探してます! Rumdor(HNT) Cruijce GRD MAN Armourer(防具職人) / Metalsmith(鋳造師) ??? Hi, there!! 良物件を探してます! Cruijce(GRD), Melcher(HNT) Koume RNK エルフ Explorer(探検家) / Tailor(仕立屋) Suzume(HNT) ぜひあみーと呼んでください！演奏も大好きです！Aでは後半小馬亭前でブリブリしてましたｗ エテンも大好きなので５０くらいになれば行ってみたいな～ヽ(´ー`)ﾉ 色々拉致して遊びに連れてってくださいね！ あと「ホビッツの冒険」に出演したいデス（/ω＼）ｷｬｰ 良物件を探してます! アミィ(MNS) BerryBell GRD 人間 Woodsman(木こり) / Woodworker(木工師) --- GRD初心者です。特技はまだここでは内緒ですが、自ずから明らかになるでしょう。 良物件を探してます! Mariwise(MNS) Lamppost WDN ホビット Tinker(風来人) / Jeweller(宝飾師) Linseed(BUR), Permeldir(LRM) 他 (その他は秘密) 趣味は手打ちエモート(ショートカット登録無し)、動画作成、特技は名推理？です。 良物件を探してます! ランプ(GRD), リンシード(BUR), イングマル(STK)ハボック(CHN), アセチレンランプ(HNT), ユージィ(MNS)グランド(MNS), シラルム(LRM), ツィーリン(HNT), レジィナ(CPT) Estrel WDN エルフ Explorer(探検家) / Tailor(仕立屋) Balter(MNS) Conb an war!! matter nen!! 妙な言葉を考えるのが好きです～。知らない間にNPしているそうですよ？ 良物件を探してます! Estrild(CHN), Balter(MNS), Estella(LRM), カンパニュラ(HNT) Luinmire MNS エルフ Armourer(防具職人) / Tailor(仕立屋) --- NAでも癒しまくりまーす。 へなちょこミンスですが、のんびり楽しんでますのでよろしくね～。 良物件を探してます! ルインミア(MNS), ジュニパー(BUR), ルインギル(CHN) Surfinia MNS ホビット Tinker(風来人) / Jeweller(宝飾師) Eriollos(RNK) 食べ物が落ちていると拾わずにいられないホビット性分です。いろんな所をうろうろするのが大好き。 良物件を探してます! サフィニア(MNS) Estellia MNS ホビット Tinker(風来人) / Jeweller(宝飾師) Kilili(HNT) 趣味は醸造。特技はくま手攻撃と赤ずきんです！（いずれも予定ですがｗ） 迷子特性も持ってます。 良物件を探してます! エステラ(MNS), キリリ(HNT) Sige GRD ドワーフ Yeoman(お百姓) / Cook(調理師) --- 特技は寝落ち! 良物件を探してます! sige(GRD), ジャズ(LRM) Komapy CPT 人間 Armourer(防具職人) / Metalsmith(鋳造師) --- 早く召喚できるよう精進いたしまする!! 良物件を探してます! Komapy(CPT), ラクチェ(CHN), ブリギット(HNT) Lerryn CHN 人間 Armourer(防具職人) / Metalsmith(鋳造師) Caranithil(RNK) 好き嫌いは、ありません！ 良物件を探してます! Lerryn(CHN), Pyrite(GRD) Porlin RNK ドワーフ Tinker(風来人) / Jeweller(宝飾師) Miliam(CHN), Millien(GRD) ラリエンさんの紹介でお世話になることになりました。よく黙ってAFKしますがご容赦を！CHNとGRDは♀ですが中の人は♂ですのでお間違えのないように・・・・。 良物件を探してます! ポーリン(CHN), ミリエーン(GRD) Hiiroko CHN 人間 Armourer(防具職人) / Metalsmith(鋳造師) --- 趣味：Blog書くこと, 戦闘中はほぼ無言です, 楽しくない訳じゃなくて余裕がないんですぅ（泣士気バカ・脳筋二刀流をNAでも貫いて行こうかなぁ 良物件を探してます! 緋色(CHN), 胡麦(HNT), 湖舶(CAP)緋色(BUR), たらこ(MNS) Folcdore CHN 人間 Armsman(武器職人) / Weaponsmith(鍛冶屋) --- Hi,there!! 良物件を探してます! --- Elams LRM エルフ Historian(歴史家) / Scholar(研究家) Selme(RNK), Qubeley(WDN) 大きい白熊をこよなく愛する、のほほんとしたロアマスターです。ど～ぞよろしく!! 良物件を探してます! エラム(LRM), Gnilda(MNS), ニルダ(CPT) Fanderion WDN 人間 Explorer(探検家) / Tailor(仕立屋) まだなし オヤジ属性がアップしてますが、みなさんよろしくお願いします。 良物件を探してます! ファンデリオン(HNT), セリアン(MNS), セア(CAP), ケリアン(LRM), セクラ(BUR)Fanderion(HNT) Hoimi MNS エルフ Tinker(風来人) / Jeweller(宝飾師) まだ作ってません^^；。研究家のハンターを作ろうかな？ とりあえず回復魔法？慣れたら、abc作りや演奏もやりたいです。 良物件を探してます! Raian(CPT)ホイミン(HNT) Ikarin BUR 人間 Explorer(探検家) / Tailor(仕立屋) Rangry(RNK) N鯖でいつも見かけていたKSに入れて光栄です^^ オンラインゲームはlotROがはじめてという未熟ものですがこれから宜しくお願いします。 良物件を探してます! Ikari Laqua RNK エルフ 未定 / 未定 Shirfy(WDN) Laquaメインで作ったのですが、FSの方が、RNKで始めてしまったので、WDNである、Shirfyを(先に)育てることになった感じです。 良物件を探してます! ラクア(MNS) Stellaen HNT エルフ Tinker(風来人) / Jeweller(宝飾師) --- Hi,there!! 良物件を探してます! Stella(HNT), Sola(LRM) Gidi GRD 人間 Historian(歴史家) / Scholar(研究家) --- Hi,there!! 良物件を探してます! ギディオン(CHN) Hadaly CHN ドワーフ Tinker(風来人) / Jeweller(宝飾師) lazhward(RNK) 範囲でぶんぶん、mezなにそれおいしいの？一応FSやレイドでは気をつけてますヨ decobocoでの合奏が楽しみです。よろしくー 良物件を探してます! ハダリ(CHN),バベッジ(LRM),ハルジオン(MNS) Lozeth CHN 人間 Armourer(防具職人) / Metalsmith(鋳造師) --- Hi,there!! 良物件を探してます! ??? Miguelino HNT ホビット Explorer(探検家) / Tailor(仕立屋) Margaretta(MNS), Rotta(GRD) 木を切ったり石を集めるのが好き。。メインキャラは殴り系ミンスになるかも。よろしくねー^^ 良物件を探してます! モクレン(MNS), Miguel(HNT), アガサ(CPT), ブリー(BUR), ドロシー(LRM) Keyqui CPT 人間 Armsman(武器職人) / Weaponsmith(鍛冶屋) まだ作ってないw プレイスタイルは、のんびり 良物件を探してます! エウメネス(CPT) Mayacat MNS ホビット Woodsman(木こり) / Woodworker(木工師) Lupicat(HNT), Lit(BUR), Witchcat(RNK) ボイスチャットで笑い声が…… 裂け目とかヘレグとかで……すみません( _ ) 良物件を探してます! ルピカ(HNT), リット(BUR), ブラゼア(MNS) Adeno LRM 人間 Tinker(風来人) / Jeweller(宝飾師) Liedalin(RNK), Liedwing(BUR) 下手の横好きロアマスター、NAでは寝た子を起こさないのが目標です＾＾； 良物件を探してます! Karen(LRM), リート(BUR), アデノ(HNT), アンコ(CPT), イルミ(CHN) decoboco Alt. 名前 クラス 種族 生産(ギルド) 生い立ち Ginco GRD ドワーフ ---(---) Pineapplesの祖母、金庫番、decoboco-Houseの大家 Ananas CPT 人間 Tinker(Jeweller) Pineapplesのなにか Ranmaru RNK エルフ Explorer(Tailor) Biancanaの兄様 Permeldir LRM エルフ ---(---) Lamppostのなにか Balter MNS ホビット Yeoman(cooker) Estrelの料理人
https://w.atwiki.jp/foobar2000jp/pages/27.html
Components コンポーネント foobar2000における拡張機能。 他のアプリケーションでは、add-onやPlug-inと呼ばれる物。ここには、読み込まれているコンポーネントの一覧が表示される。 ダブルクリックで詳細を表示する事ができる。 Componentsのインストール場所 v1.1〜Vista / 7C \Users\ユーザー名\AppData\Roaming\foobar2000\user-components XPC \Documents and Settings\ユーザー名\Application Data\foobar2000\user-components v1.1以前XPC \Program Files\foobar2000\components Vista / 7x86C \Program Files\foobar2000\components x64C \Program Files (x86)\foobar2000\components インストールv1.1以降はFile → Preference → Components → Install...でインストールするコンポーネントを選択してインストール。v1.1以前は、該当フォルダーにdllをコピーする。中にはdll以外にも必要ファイルが同梱されているものがあるので注意。 アンインストールv1.1以降はFile → Preference → Componentsで対象を右クリック → Removeで削除。v1.1以前は、インストールフォルダーから削除する。 関連 コンポーネントの設定
https://w.atwiki.jp/elvis/pages/1143.html
Abderraman III Random House Mondadori Iacobus Matilde Asensi?Random House Mondadori Dune, La Casa Harkonnen Brian Herbert?Kevin J. Anderson?Random House Mondadori Buick 8, Un Coche Perverso Stephen King?Random House Mondadori Mayada, Hija De Irak Jean P. Sasson?Random House Mondadori Adn Robin Cook?Random House Mondadori Los anarquistas de Long Spoon Lane/ Long Spoon Lane Anne Perry?Random House Mondadori La Cena Secreta Random House Mondadori El Amante Lesbiano Random House Mondadori Cuaderno Amarillo Random House Mondadori Los Caminos Perdidos De Africa Random House Mondadori Comida Amiga Random House Mondadori La Cruda Y Tierna Verdad Memorias No Autorizadas Random House Mondadori Yo Puta Random House Mondadori Comer Para Crecer Random House Mondadori El Dios, El Diablo Y La Aventura Random House Mondadori La Flor Y Nata Random House Mondadori El Amor Abre Los Corazones Liz Mohn?Random House Mondadori Amores Turbulentos (Coleccion Cisne) Rebeca Brandewyne?Random House Mondadori Franco Y El Rey Random House Mondadori Los Ninos Perdidos Del Franquismo Random House Mondadori Tierra Sagrada Random House Mondadori Alto Riesgo Ken Follett?Random House Mondadori Nada Te Turbe Random House Mondadori Universal Espanol/ingles, Diccionario Collins Random House Mondadori Compact Plus Ingles-espanol 2005 Random House Mondadori Caballeros de la Vera Cruz / The Men of Vera Cruz David Camus?Random House Mondadori La Catedral del mar / The Cathedral of the Sea Ildefonso Falcones?Random House Mondadori Mary Shelly Random House Mondadori Todo Esta Iluminado Random House Mondadori Placer Fugaz, Un (Memorias) Gerald Clarke?Random House Mondadori Atlas Jorge Luis Borges?Random House Mondadori Marinero En Tierra Rafael Alberti?Random House Mondadori Cien Poemas Chinos Random House Mondadori America Dia a Dia Simone de Beauvoir?Random House Mondadori Sexualmente Hablando Random House Mondadori El Grito Silenciado Random House Mondadori El Palacio Mineral Heidi Julavits?Random House Mondadori Virginia Woolf Nigel Nicolson?Random House Mondadori Los Juegos Feroces Francisco Casavella?Random House Mondadori El Islam Karen Armstrong?Random House Mondadori La Edad De Hierro J. M. Coetzee?Random House Mondadori Cumpleanos Cesar Aira?Random House Mondadori El Pequeno Mago Mozart Random House Mondadori Durero Random House Mondadori Caravaggio Rosa Giorgi?Random House Mondadori Matisse Gabriele Crepaldi?Random House Mondadori Rembrandt Random House Mondadori Van Gogh Random House Mondadori Cezanne Silvia Borghesi?Random House Mondadori Gauguin Gabriele Crepaldi?Random House Mondadori Friedrich Random House Mondadori Velazquez Rosa Giorgi?Random House Mondadori Kandinski Random House Mondadori Giotto Monica Girardi?Random House Mondadori Piero Della Francesca Random House Mondadori Vermeer Random House Mondadori Rafael Monica Girardi?Random House Mondadori Renoir Gabriele Crepaldi?Random House Mondadori Klimt Random House Mondadori La Antigua Roma, Ada Gabucci?Random House Mondadori Hopper Silvia Borghesi?Random House Mondadori Miguel Angel (Artbook) Monica Girardi?Random House Mondadori Historia Social De La Literatura 1 Arnold Hauser?Random House Mondadori Historia Social De La Literatura 2 Arnold Hauser?Random House Mondadori Geopolitica Del Caos Le Monde Diplomatique?Random House Mondadori Mundo De Perico Conejo Trav Y Sus Amigos Random House Mondadori La Sangre Ajena Manuel De Lope?Random House Mondadori La Sagrada Biblia Para Ninos Random House Mondadori Alamos Talados (Novela) Abelardo Arias?Random House Mondadori El Enigma De La Llegada V. S. Naipaul?Random House Mondadori Amos Del Mundo (Arena Abie) Juan Carlos Castillon Martin?Random House Mondadori Cuadernos De Todo Ana Maria Martin Gaite?Random House Mondadori La Historia De Murasaki Liza Dalby?Random House Mondadori Las Mentirijillas De Cedar B, Una Chica Diferente/ The Slightly True Story of Cedar B. Hartley (Chicas) Martine Murray?Random House Mondadori La puerta del tiempo/ The Door of Time Pierdomenico Baccalario?Random House Mondadori Mis Primeros Colores En Ingles/ First Colours Sticker Book Random House Mondadori Mis Primeros Objetos En Ingles/ First Mix+Match Sticker Book Random House Mondadori Poesia Luis De Gongora?Random House Mondadori Don Quijote De La Mancha I Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra?Random House Mondadori Don Quijote De La Mancha II Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra?Random House Mondadori Tuareg Random House Mondadori Antologia De Las Mejores Poesias De Amor Luis Maria Anson?Random House Mondadori Iacobus Matilde Asensi?Random House Mondadori Garzon. El Hombre Que Veia Amanecer Random House Mondadori La Rueda Del Deseo Random House Mondadori Historia De Roma / Rome History (Ensayo-Historia/ Essay-History) Indro Montanelli?Random House MondadoriDomingo Pruna? La Dune, La Casa Atreides Brian Herbert?Kevin J. Anderson?Random House Mondadori Tan Veloz Como El Deseo Laura Esquivel?Random House Mondadori El Ultimo Adios/ Before I Say Good-bye (Best Seller) Mary Higgins Clark?Random House Mondadori El opalo negro/ The Black Opal (Best Seller) Victoria Holt?Random House Mondadori Claire Se Queda Sola Marian Keyes?Random House Mondadori India V. S. Naipaul?Random House Mondadori La Isla Del Dia De Antes (Contemporanea) Umberto Eco?Random House Mondadori Un Lugar Llamado Libertad/ a Place Called Freedom (Best Seller) Ken Follett?Random House Mondadori El Jinete del diablo/ The Devil on Horseback (Best Seller) Victoria Holt?Random House Mondadori Hijos De Dune/ Children of Dune (Best Seller) Frank Herbert?Random House Mondadori El Dragon Rojo Thomas Harris?Random House Mondadori Historia De Los Griegos Indro Montanelli?Random House Mondadori El Tercer Gemelo/ The Third Twin (Best Seller) Ken Follett?Random House Mondadori Falsa Memoria / False Memory (Best Seller) Dean R. Koontz?Random House MondadoriJose Antonio Soriano? La Sabiduria De Todos Los Tiempos Wayne W. Dyer?Random House Mondadori Leonardo El Primer Cientifico Random House Mondadori El Relicario Random House Mondadori Siddhartha (Contemporanea / Contemporary) Hermann Hesse?Random House MondadoriJuan Jose Del Solar? Dune (Best Seller) Domingo Santos?Random House Mondadori Nen, a Dormir E. Estivill?S. De Bejar?Random House Mondadori Dios Emperador De Dune / God Emperor of Dune (Best Seller) Frank Herbert?Random House MondadoriMontserrat Conill? Un Mundo Mejor Random House Mondadori Tiempo De Conquistadores Random House Mondadori Yo estoy bien, tu estas bien/ I'm ok, Your ok (Autoayuda) Thomas Anthony Harris?Random House Mondadori Serpiente / Serpent from the Numa Files Clive Cussler?Random House MondadoriMatuca Fernandez de Villavicencio? Piratas Random House Mondadori El Senor De Far Island Victoria Holt?Random House Mondadori La cancion de salomon/ Song of Solomon Toni Morrison?Random House Mondadori Sula Toni Morrison?Random House Mondadori Ojos azules/ The Bluest Eyes (Contemporanea) Toni Morrison?Random House Mondadori Veinte Poemas De Amor Y Una Cancion..... Pablo Neruda?Random House Mondadori Vivir Del Viento Random House Mondadori Los Versos Del Capitan Pablo Neruda?Random House Mondadori Yo Mato Giorgio Faletti?Random House Mondadori Los Excluidos/ The Excluded (Contemporanea / Contemporary) Elfriede Jelinek?Random House Mondadori La Abadia De Los Acrobatas Joanne Harris?Random House Mondadori La Biblia De Barro Julia Navarro Fernandez?Random House Mondadori La Cuarta Alianza Gonzalo Giner?Random House Mondadori A La Deriva Random House Mondadori La Cata De Vinos Lluis Manel Barba?Random House Mondadori Belinda Y El Monstruo Luis Magrinya?Random House Mondadori El guardian del vergel/ The Orchard Keeper (Contemporanea) Cormac McCarthy?Random House Mondadori Tres Metros Sobre El Cielo / Three Meters on the Sky (Best Seller) Federico Federico Moccia?Random House MondadoriPatricia Orts Garcia? Escondido en las sombras/ Nighttime is my Time (Best Seller) Mary Higgins Clark?Random House Mondadori El Medico Del Sultan Random House Mondadori Artemis Fowl I-mundo Subterraneo Eoin Colfer?Random House Mondadori Artemis Fowl Ii-encuentro En El Artico Eoin Colfer?Random House Mondadori Artemis Fowl Iii-el Cubo B Eoin Colfer?Random House Mondadori El Ultimatum Bourne / the Bourne Ultimatum (Best Seller) Robert Ludlum?Random House Mondadori El hombre que mira/ The Man Who Watches Alberto Moravia?Random House Mondadori Un amor escondido/ Love and the Single Heiress Jacquie D Alessandro?Random House Mondadori La Matriz Del Infierno (Pocket Sudamericana) Marcos Aguinis?Random House Mondadori I Ching (Obras Diversas) Richard Wilhelm?Random House Mondadori Historia De Una Pasion Argentina (Ensayo) Eduardo Mallea?Random House Mondadori Clea (Narrativa) Lawrence Durrell?Random House Mondadori El Orden Conservador (Historia) Natalio Botana?Random House Mondadori Jose Hernandez Y Sus Mundos (Historia) T. 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Belgrano Rawson?Random House Mondadori Boca De Sapo (Pan Flauta) Gigliola Zecchin?Random House Mondadori Milongas Tamano Alpiste (Bolsillo) Laura Devetach?Random House Mondadori Brujas Con Poco Trabajo (Bolsillo) Silvia Schujer?Random House Mondadori Color De Rosas (Vida Cotidiana) Eugenio Rosasco?Random House Mondadori Volver Al Pais De Los Araucano (Vida Cotidiana) Raul Mandrini?Random House Mondadori Lb-el Bandido De Los Mares (Bolsillo) Sandra Siemens?Random House Mondadori Sobre Ruedas (Bolsillo) Esteban Valentino?Random House Mondadori Hombres Y Mujeres De Colonia (Vida Cotidiana) Fradkin?Random House Mondadori Deseos Imaginarios Del Peronis (Pensamiento) Juan Jose Sebreli?Random House Mondadori El Anillo Encantado (Pan Flauta) Maria T. 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(Especiales) Ema Wolf?Random House Mondadori Sistemas Sociales Y Filosofia (Pensamiento) Mario Bunge?Random House Mondadori Dialogos Con La Historia Y La Politica (Historia) N. luna, F. 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Graciela B. Cabal?Random House Mondadori Vistas Y Entrevistas (Pensamiento) Mario Bunge?Random House Mondadori Diccionario Gran Pocket (Diccionarios) F. Garcia Pelayo?Random House Mondadori Curiosidades Planeta Tierra (Obras Diversas) Leonardo Moledo?Random House Mondadori Solo Y Su Sombra (Pan Flauta) Margara Averbach?Random House Mondadori Breve Ant. De Ctos. Fantasticos (Antologias) Jorge Luis Borges?Random House Mondadori Al Agua Patatus (Pan Flauta) G. Keselman Porter?Random House Mondadori 20 De Animales (Antologias) Margara Averbach?Random House Mondadori Regueros De Tinta (Historia) Sylvia Saitta?Random House Mondadori Memorias De Adriano (Narrativa Historica) Marguerite Yourcenar?Random House Mondadori Condicion Humana (Discontinuados) Andre Malraux?Random House Mondadori Siglo De La Libertad Y Miedo (Pensamiento) Natalio Botana?Random House Mondadori El Espejo De La Historia (Historia) T. 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Albert Camus?Random House Mondadori Mi Amigo El Che (Pocket Sudamericana) Ricardo Rojo?Random House Mondadori I Ching (Pocket Sudamericana) Richard Wilhelm?Random House Mondadori Misteriosa Buenos Aires (Pocket Sudamericana) Manuel Mujica Lainez?Random House Mondadori Autoritarismo Hispanoamericano (Pocket Sudamericana) jose Garcia Hamilton?Random House Mondadori Guerra De Los Sexos (Humor) Gabriela Acher?Random House Mondadori Lola Descubre El Agua (Lola) Gigliola Zecchin?Random House Mondadori Lola Va a La Plaza (Lola) Gigliola Zecchin?Random House Mondadori Miedo En El Sur (Especiales) Ana Maria Schoua?Random House Mondadori Viajes Con Mi Tia (Pocket Sudamericana) Graham Greene?Random House Mondadori La Patagonia De Chatwin (Rumbo Sur) Gimenez A. 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Jorge Accame?Random House Mondadori Arte, Sociedad Y Politica II (Nueva Historia Argentina) Jose Emilio Burucua?Random House Mondadori Un Sol Para Tu Sombrero (Caminadores) Maria Cristina Ramos?Random House Mondadori La Vida Despues De La Muerte (Pocket Sudamericana) Arnold Joseph Toynbee?Random House Mondadori La Adopcion, Nuevos Enigmas (Ensayo) Eva Giberti?Random House Mondadori La Nave De Los Brujos (Cuenta Ame.) Ema Wolf?Random House Mondadori Testimonios (Ensayo) v. fund. 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Keselman Porter?Random House Mondadori El Lesca, El Fascista Irreductible (Narrativa Argentina) Jorge Asis?Random House Mondadori No Es La Mariposa Negra (Joven) Marcelo Birmajer?Random House Mondadori Entre La Revolucion Y Las Urnas (Univ.San Andres) Paula Alonso?Random House Mondadori
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#blognavi ABACUS by FOSSIL WRIST PDA with Palm OS AU5005 が、Vis-a-Visに入荷したようです。 価格は、￥15,750（税抜価格￥15,000） 在庫ありになっています。 詳しくは以下のページを参照してください。 詳細はこちら Vis-a-Vis 商品 ABACUS by FOSSIL WRIST PDA with Palm OS カテゴリ [ハード] - trackback- 2005年10月12日 11 13 35 #blognavi
https://w.atwiki.jp/automobilista2jp/pages/23.html
Endurance Brasilはブラジルで行われている耐久レースである。 概要 P1,P2,P3,P4,GT3,GT4の6クラスでブラジル国内のコースを転戦して行われる耐久レースシリーズで、クラス混合スタート、DRS開け放題、ワイパーがない車で雨天走行など破茶滅茶なイロモノレースである。 使用される車もAJRやMRXなどのこのカテゴリ専用のものから、年代の入り混じったGT3、GT4クラスに分類されるTCRなどかなり個性的である。 レースの様子はyoutubeで無料配信され、アーカイブも残っているため、一度見てみるほうがわかりやすいかもしれない。突然画面が分裂したりカラーバーが表示されたりするのはご愛嬌 余談 AMS2にはEndurance Brasil出場車の多くが収録されているが、現状はゲームモードの使用上4クラスまでの混走しかできないので完全再現することはできない。 関連 公式サイト https //www.imperioendurancebrasil.com.br/ 公式youtube https //www.youtube.com/channel/UCu44Vvcn1UVbkxPyJvHiPDw
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The Peopling of Australia (Stories of the Dreamtime-Tales of the Aboriginal People) Gareth Stevens Pub? Percy Trezise? GarethStevensPub? PercyTrezise? undefined undefined On a Cold Cold Day Rigby Interactive Library? Andrea Butler? Robert Avitabile? RigbyInteractiveLibrary? AndreaButler? RobertAvitabile? undefined undefined Italian Learn While You Drive Module 1 Amr Educational Systems? AmrEducationalSystems? Substores-UnknownASINs-35 Subjects-Nonfiction-Education-LanguageInstruction-Instruction-Italian? Subjects-Reference-ForeignLanguages-Instruction-Italian? Verbal Expansion English Learn While You Drive Amr Educational Systems? AmrEducationalSystems? Substores-UnknownASINs-35 Subjects-Nonfiction-BooksonCassette-General? Formats-Audiocassettes-Nonfiction-General? Formats-Audiocassettes-General? English Verbal Expansion Learn While You Drive, Module 4 Amr Educational Systems? AmrEducationalSystems? Substores-UnknownASINs-35 Formats-Audiocassettes-General? 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Bible and University The Messianic Vision of William Rainey Harper Scholars Pr? James P. Wind? ScholarsPr? JamesP.Wind? undefined undefined Arator's on the Acts of the Apostles/De Actibus Apostolorum (American Academy of Religion Classics in Religious Studies, No 6) Scholars Pr? Richard J. Schrader? Joseph L, III Roberts? John F. Makowski? ScholarsPr? RichardJ.Schrader? JosephL,IIIRoberts? JohnF.Makowski? Substores-UnknownASINs-35 Subjects-Literature&Fiction-Classics-Roman? Knowledge and Illumination A Study of Suhrawardis Hikmat Alishraq (Brown Judaic Studies) Scholars Pr? Hossein Ziai? ScholarsPr? HosseinZiai? Substores-UnknownASINs-35 Subjects-Nonfiction-Philosophy-Eastern-General? Subjects-Nonfiction-Philosophy-General? Subjects-Nonfiction-Philosophy-Ancient? Subjects-Religion&Spirituality-OtherEasternReligions-EasternPhilosophy? Athens and Jerusalem An Interpretive Essay on Christianity and Classical Culture (Studies in Religion) Scholars Pr? E. G. Weltin? ScholarsPr? 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製品情報 ASCII.JP PROMISE製、SAS/SATAコントローラ。 他社製のSASコントローラよりもかなり価格が安い。 SAS入門的なカードに良い？ 私は、パソコンハウス東映にてバルクを購入。8980円でした。 ケーブル代を考えるとかなりお得だと思います。（ケーブル2本で5000円とかするから。） このケーブルはSATAにも接続出来ます。普通のSATA用よりもガッチリ固定出来るのでGOOD。 同チップを搭載したマザーボードも登場 MSI K9A2 Platinum ASCII.JP 付属品は 説明書 ドライバCD-ROM SASケーブル*2本 ロープロファイルブラケット 設定自体は非常に簡単で、アレイを作るだけです。 その他のストレージ関係のコントローラとぶつかったりしますが、それを抜きにして考えると敷居は低いでしょう。 うちの環境ではSATAのHDDをIDE互換モードに変更しないとコントローラ同士がぶつかって起動しませんでした。 RAIDカードを複数挿す場合は要注意。 BOOT順について TX*650でアレイを作成すると、M/BのBIOSでHDDとして認識されます。 その後、M/BのBIOSでBOOT順を設定してあげれば良いでしょう。 その他コントローラとの干渉について 私は、P5N-E SLIにて使用していますが、 JMicronのRAIDコントローラをBIOSでdisable SouthBridgeに繋いでいるSATAHDDでも、SATAモードではなくIDEモードに変更 をしないと、干渉して起動しませんでした。 システムはSASでRAID0、データはSATAでRAID0/5と考えている方は注意が必要です。 K9A2 Platinumに搭載されていますので、経験者はこれから増えてくると思います。 2ch自作板のK9A2関係のスレなどをよく見て、複数コントローラの共存が出来る出来ないを 判断して使用した方が良いと思います。 TWO-TOP K9A2 Platinum ユーザーコメント ヤス氏の投稿より抜粋 00001454 ヤスさん 07/11/20 午後 11 52 46 (Phenom は予算立たず) SAS ready は本当? てなことで試してみました。動きました。(その１) SAS readyと言ってもPROMISEのFastTrak TX2650(\13,780(税込)),TX4650で使用されているRAIDコントローラ,PDC42819をオンボードに実装しているというのが実態。添付のケーブル代等を除けば、25000円程度のものと思われる。 でもSASは動きました。単体カードで動くのだから、逆に実績は十分と思か。但し、SCSIコントローラとしての性能は?です。細かい設定はできないのと思います(恐らくレジストリに色々あるとは思いますが)。私もしばらくSCSIを使っていないので評価できません。 材料 OS XP(SP2) CPU Athlon64 X2 5000+ Black Edition MB これ ハードDISK構成(HDBENCHの表示から) ATI IDE Controller * Hitachi HDS721616PLA380 SATA 160G(起動DISK) * WDC WD360ADFD-00NLR1 SATA 36G Promise FastTrak PDC42819 Controller *マザーボードの添付CD-ROMのDRVをインストール * Promise 1+0 JBOD 1.10 = HGST HUS151436VLS300 SAS *容量 36GB/回転数 15000rpm 安くても 2万円を少し超えるくらいから。 SASケーブル CS Electronics SAS-7P82-1/.5m 7pin-SFF-8482 50cm 7pin ホストから、SFF-8482 29pin ドライブコネクタに接続するケーブル。電源4ピンはコネクタ両端15cm 1本 (税込)\2,780 オリオスペックで入手。 (ちなみにTX2650 TX4650には添付されていことからSATAと共通? こんなケーブル必要ないかもしれませんがとにかく入手) 下に測定した値を載せますが、「デフォルトで計ったらこれ」程度の信憑性です。 あまり参考にしないでください。比較のためWD Raptorの値も一緒に 00001455 ヤスさん 07/11/20 午後 11 54 26 その２ CrystalDiskMark 1.0 (C) 2007 hiyohiyo Crystal Dew World http //crystalmark.info/ ================== HGST HUS151436VLS300 SAS 36G *うるさいです。個人的にはWD Raptorより気にならない音ですが。 DATA DISK 何も入っていない Sequential Read 92.482 MB/s Sequential Write 82.125 MB/s Random Read 512KB 58.264 MB/s Random Write 512KB 53.140 MB/s Random Read 4KB 1.665 MB/s Random Write 4KB 1.529 MB/s ================== WDC WD360ADFD-00NLR1 SATA 36G(SB600 IDEモード) DATA DISK 何も入っていない Sequential Read 87.425 MB/s Sequential Write 87.342 MB/s Random Read 512KB 39.498 MB/s Random Write 512KB 67.746 MB/s Random Read 4KB 42.615 MB/s Random Write 4KB 2.458 MB/s ================== ハードDISKの値段を考えると割りにあわないけど、SB600の嫌いな方、SASを試してみたい方にはいいかもしれません。通風をじゃましないし。 このあと、vistaのインストールDISKとして使用してみました。マザーボードのCD-ROMのPROMISEのフォルダー内の txtsetup.oemがあるディレクトリの中身をUSBメモリー等にコピーして使用します。vistaの場合はinfが有効みたいで、i386フォルダーを選択してやります。 起動に時間がやたらかかるので何か間違ええたかも知れません(XPのCD-ROMを使ってしまったのは事実ですが。) 結構快適に動きます。家族に「パソコン壊れたの？」て言われるかもしれませんが。 参考文献 2ch自作板 SAS/SCSI総合スレッド28 抜粋 2ch自作板 SAS/SCSI総合スレッド28 抜粋2
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Wiping off of a mistake メインCP 雪城聖夜×伊佐蓉 the plot of a story 聖夜が勤めるホストクラブで不可解な事象が頻発するようになったある日。 十年前恋人同士だった二人は再会した。 互いに過去のことだと思いながらも、再び…？ ―そんな特殊設定混じりながら再会話の予定。 character setting 【character】 Main 雪城 聖夜 伊佐 蓉 Other 雪城 朔夜 相馬 律夏 【setting】 ＞設定は此方へ log Prologue/蓉 Prologue/聖夜 001/蓉 002/聖夜 003/蓉 004/朔夜 005/蓉 006/聖夜 007/聖夜 008/蓉 009/聖夜 010/蓉 011/律夏 012/聖夜 013/蓉 014/聖夜 015/蓉 016/聖夜 017/蓉 To be continued…
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Logical positivism and logical empiricism, which together formed neopositivism, was a movement in Western philosophy that embraced verificationism, an approach that sought to legitimize philosophical discourse on a basis shared with the best examples of empirical sciences. In this theory of knowledge, only statements verifiable either logically or empirically would be cognitively meaningful. Seeking to convert philosophy to this new scientific philosophy was aimed to prevent confusion rooted in unclear language and unverifiable claims.[1] The Berlin Circle and the Vienna Circle propounded logical positivism starting in the late 1920s. Interpreting Ludwig Wittgenstein s philosophy of language, logical positivists identified a verifiability principle or criterion of cognitive meaningfulness. From Bertrand Russell s logicism they sought reduction of mathematics to logic as well as Russell s logical atomism, Ernst Mach s phenomenalism—whereby the mind knows only actual or potential sensory experience, which is the content of all sciences, whether physics or psychology—and Percy Bridgman s musings that others proclaimed as operationalism. Thereby, only the verifiable was scientific and cognitively meaningful, whereas the unverifiable was unscientific, cognitively meaningless "pseudostatements"—metaphysic, emotive, or such—not candidate to further review by philosophers, newly tasked to organize knowledge, not develop new knowledge. Logical positivism became famed for vigorous scientific antirealism to purge science of talk about nature s unobservable aspects—including causality, mechanism, and principles—although that goal has been exaggerated[who said this?]. Still, talk of such unobservables would be metaphorical—direct observations viewed in the abstract—or at worst metaphysical or emotional. Theoretical laws would be reduced to empirical laws, while theoretical terms would garner meaning from observational terms via correspondence rules. Mathematics of physics would reduce to symbolic logic via logicism, while rational reconstruction would convert ordinary language into standardized equivalents, all networked and united by a logical syntax. A scientific theory would be stated with its method of verification, whereby a logical calculus or empirical operation could verify its falsity or truth. In the late 1930s, logical positivists fled Germany and Austria for Britain and United States. By then, many had replaced Mach s phenomenalism with Neurath s physicalism, and Carnap had sought to replace verification with simply confirmation. With World War II s close in 1945, logical positivism became milder, logical empiricism, led largely by Carl Hempel, in America, who expounded the covering law model of scientific explanation. The logical positivist movement became a major underpinning of analytic philosophy,[2] and dominated Anglosphere philosophy, including philosophy of science, while influencing sciences, into the 1960s. Yet the movement failed to resolve its central problems,[3][4][5] and its doctrines were increasingly assaulted, most trenchantly by W V O Quine, Norwood Hanson, Karl Popper, Thomas Kuhn, and Carl Hempel. Contents [hide] 1 Roots 1.1 Language 1.2 Logicism 1.3 Empiricism 2 Origins 2.1 Vienna 2.2 Berlin 2.3 Rivals 2.4 Export 3 Principles 3.1 Analytic/synthetic gap 3.2 Observation/theory gap 3.3 Cognitive meaningfulness 3.3.1 Verification 3.3.2 Confirmation 3.3.3 Weak verification 4 Philosophy of science 4.1 Explanation 4.2 Unity of science 4.3 Theory reduction 5 Critics 5.1 Quine 5.2 Hanson 5.3 Popper 5.4 Kuhn 5.5 Putnam 6 Retrospect 7 Footnotes 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links Roots[edit] Language[edit] Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, by the young Ludwig Wittgenstein, introduced the view of philosophy as "critique of language", offering the possibility of a theoretically principled distinction of intelligible versus nonsensical discourse. Tractatus adhered to a correspondence theory of truth (versus a coherence theory of truth). Wittgenstein s influence also shows in some versions of the verifiability principle.[6][7] In tractarian doctrine, truths of logic are tautologies, a view widely accepted by logical positivists who were also influenced by Wittgenstein s interpretation of probability although, according to Neurath, some logical positivists found Tractatus to contain much metaphysics.[8] Logicism[edit] Gottlob Frege began the program of reducing mathematics to logic, continued it with Bertrand Russell, but lost interest in this logicism, and Russell continued it with Alfred North Whitehead in their monumental Principia Mathematica, inspiring some of the more mathematical logical posivists, such as Hans Hahn and Rudolf Carnap.[9] (Carnap s early anti-metaphysical works employed Russell s theory of types.)[10] Carnap envisioned a universal language that could reconstruct mathematics and thereby encode physics.[9] Yet Kurt Gödel s incompleteness theorem showed this impossible except in trivial cases, and Alfred Tarski s undefinability theorem shattered all hopes of reducing mathematics to logic.[9] Thus, a universal language failed to stem from Carnap s 1934 work Logische Syntax der Sprache (Logical Syntax of Language).[9] Still, some logical positivists, including Carl Hempel, continued support of logicism.[9] Empiricism[edit] In Germany, Hegelian metaphysics was a dominant movement, and Hegelian successors such as F H Bradley explained reality by postulating metaphysical entities lacking empirical basis, drawing reaction in the form of positivism.[11] Starting in the late 19th century, there was "back to Kant" movement. Ernst Mach s positivism and phenomenalism were a major influence. Origins[edit] Vienna[edit] The Vienna Circle, gathering around University of Vienna and Café Central, was led principally by Moritz Schlick. Schlick had held a neo-Kantian position, but later converted, via Carnap s 1928 book Der logische Aufbau der Welt—that is, The Logical Structure of the World—which became Vienna Circle s "bible", Aufbau. A 1929 pamphlet written by Otto Neurath, Hans Hahn, and Rudolf Carnap summarized the Vienna Circle s positions. Another member of Vienna Circle to later prove very influential was Carl Hempel. A friendly but tenacious critic of the Circle was Karl Popper, whom Neurath nicknamed the "Official Opposition". Carnap and other Vienna Circle members, including Hahn and Neurath, saw need for a weaker criterion of meaningfulness than verifiability.[12] A radical "left" wing—led by Neurath and Carnap—began the program of "liberalization of empiricism", and they also emphasized fallibilism and pragmatics, which latter Carnap even suggested as empiricism s basis.[12] A conservative "right" wing—led by Schlick and Waismann—rejected both the liberalization of empiricism and the epistemological nonfoundationalism of a move from phenomenalism to physicalism.[12] As Neurath and somewhat Carnap posed science toward social reform, the split in Vienna Circle also reflected political views.[12] Berlin[edit] The Berlin Circle was led principally by Hans Reichenbach. Rivals[edit] Both Moritz Schlick and Rudolf Carnap had been influenced by and sought to define logical positivism versus the neo-Kantianism of Ernst Cassirer—the then leading figure of Marburg school, so called—and against Edmund Husserl s phenomenology. Logical positivists especially opposed Martin Heidegger s obscure metaphysics, the epitome of what logical positivism rejected. In the early 1930s, Carnap debated Heidegger over "metaphysical pseudosentences".[13] Despite its revolutionary aims, logical positivism was but one view among many vying within Europe, and logical positivists initially spoke their language.[13] Export[edit] As the movement s first emissary to the New World, Moritz Schlick visited Stanford University in 1929, yet otherwise remained in Vienna and was murdered at the University, reportedly by a deranged student, in 1936.[13] That year, a British attendee at some Vienna Circle meetings since 1933, A J Ayer saw his Language, Truth and Logic, written in English, import logical positivism to the Anglosphere. By then, Nazi political party s 1933 rise to power in Germany had triggered flight of intellectuals.[13] In exile in England, Otto Neurath died in 1945.[13] Rudolf Carnap, Hans Reichenbach, and Carl Hempel—Carnap s protégé who had studied in Berlin with Reichenbach—settled permanently in America.[13] Upon Germany s annexation of Austria in 1939, remaining logical positivists, many of whom were also Jewish, were targeted and continued flight. Logical positivism thus became dominant in the Anglosphere. Principles[edit] Analytic/synthetic gap[edit] Concerning reality, the necessary is a state true in all possible worlds—mere logical validity—whereas the contingent hinges on the way the particular world is. Concerning knowledge, the a priori is knowable before or without, whereas the a posteriori is knowable only after or through, relevant experience. Concerning statements, the analytic is true via terms arrangement and meanings, thus a tautology—true by logical necessity but uninformative about the world—whereas the synthetic adds reference to a state of facts, a contingency. In 1739, Hume cast a fork aggressively dividing "relations of ideas" from "matters of fact and real existence", such that all truths are of one type or the other.[14][15] By Hume s fork, truths by relations among ideas (abstract) all align on one side (analytic, necessary, a priori), whereas truths by states of actualities (concrete) always align on the other side (synthetic, contingent, a posteriori).[14] At any treatises containing neither, Hume orders, "Commit it then to the flames, for it can contain nothing but sophistry and illusion".[14] Thus awakened from "dogmatic slumber", Kant quested to answer Hume s challenge—but by explaining how metaphysics is possible. Eventually, in his 1781 work, Kant crossed the tines of Hume s fork to identify another range of truths by necessity—synthetic a priori, statements claiming states of facts but known true before experience—by arriving at transcendental idealism, attributing the mind a constructive role in phenomena by arranging sense data into the very experience space, time, and substance. Thus, Kant saved Newton s law of universal gravitation from Hume s problem of induction by finding uniformity of nature to be a priori knowledge. Logical positivists rejected Kant s synthethic a priori, and staked Hume s fork, whereby a statement is either analytic and a priori (thus necessary and verifiable logically) or synthetic and a posteriori (thus contingent and verifiable empirically).[14] Observation/theory gap[edit] Early, most logical positivists proposed that all knowledge is based on logical inference from simple "protocol sentences" grounded in observable facts. In the 1936 and 1937 papers "Testability and meaning", individual terms replace sentences as the units of meaning.[12] Further, theoretical terms no longer need to acquire meaning by explicit definition from observational terms the connection may be indirect, through a system of implicit definitions.[12] (Carnap also provides an important, pioneering discussion of disposition predicates.)[12] Cognitive meaningfulness[edit] Verification[edit] The logical positivists initial stance was that a statement is "cognitively meaningful" only if some finite procedure conclusively determines its truth.[16] By this verifiability principle, only statements verifiable either by their analyticity or by empiricism were cognitively meaningful. Metaphysics, ontology, as well as much of ethics failed this criterion, and so were found cognitively meaningless. Moritz Schlick, however, did not view ethical or aesthetic statements as cognitively meaningless.[17] Cognitive meaningfulness was variously defined having a truth value; corresponding to a possible state of affairs; naming a proposition; intelligible or understandable as are scientific statements.[18] Ethics and aesthetics were subjective preferences, while theology and other metaphysics contained "pseudostatements", neither true nor false. This meaningfulness was cognitive, although other types of meaningfulness—for instance, emotive, expressive, or figurative—occurred in metaphysical discourse, dismissed from further review. Thus, logical positivism indirectly asserted Hume s law, the principle that is statements cannot justify ought statements, but are separated by an unbridgeable gap. A J Ayer s 1936 book asserted an extreme variant—the boo/hooray doctrine—whereby all evaluative judgments are but emotional reactions. Confirmation[edit] In an important pair of papers in 1936 and 1937, "Testability and meaning", Carnap replaced verification with confirmation, on the view that although universal laws cannot be verified they can be confirmed.[12] Later, Carnap employed abundant logical and mathematical methods in researching inductive logic while seeking to provide and account of probability as "degree of confirmation", but was never able to formulate a model.[19] In Carnap s inductive logic, every universal law s degree of confirmation is always zero.[19] In any event, the precise formulation of what came to be called the "criterion of cognitive significance" took three decades (Hempel 1950, Carnap 1956, Carnap 1961).[12] Carl Hempel became a major critic within the logical positivism movement.[20] Hempel elucidated the paradox of confirmation. Weak verification[edit] The second edition of A J Ayer s book arrived in 1946, and discerned strong versus weak forms of verification. Ayer concluded, "A proposition is said to be verifiable, in the strong sense of the term, if, and only if, its truth could be conclusively established by experience", but is verifiable in the weak sense "if it is possible for experience to render it probable".[21] And yet, "no proposition, other than a tautology, can possibly be anything more than a probable hypothesis".[21] Thus, all are open to weak verification. Philosophy of science[edit] Upon the global defeat of Nazism, and removed from philosophy rivials for radical reform—Marburg neo-Kantianism, Husserlian phenomenology, Heidegger s "existential hermeneutics"—while hosted in the climate of American pragmatism and commonsense empiricism, the neopositivists shed much of their earlier, revolutionary zeal.[1] No longer crusading to revise traditional philosophy into a new scientific philosophy, they became respectable members of a new philosophy subdiscipline, philosophy of science.[1] Receiving support from Ernest Nagel, logical empiricists were especially influential in the social sciences.[22] Explanation[edit] Comtean positivism had viewed science as description, whereas the logical positivists posed science as explanation, perhaps to better realize the envisioned unity of science by covering not only fundamental science—that is, fundamental physics—but the special sciences, too, for instance biology, anthropology, psychology, sociology, and economics.[23] The most widely accepted concept of scientific explanation, held even by neopositivist critic Karl Popper, was the deductive-nomological model (DN model).[24] Yet DN model received its greatest explication by Carl Hempel, first in his 1942 article "The function of general laws in history", and more explicitly with Paul Oppenheim in their 1948 article "Studies in the logic of explanation".[24] In DN model, the stated phenomenon to be explained is the explanandum—which can be an event, law, or theory—whereas premises stated to explain it are the explanans.[25] Explanans must be true or highly confirmed, contain at least one law, and entail the explanandum.[25] Thus, given initial conditions C1, C2 . . . Cn plus general laws L1, L2 . . . Ln, event E is a deductive consequence and scientifically explained.[25] In DN model, a law is an unrestricted generalization by conditional proposition—If A, then B—and has empirical content testable.[26] (Differing from a merely true regularity—for instance, George always carries only $1 bills in his wallet—a law suggests what must be true,[27] and is consequent of a scientific theory s axiomatic structure.[28]) By the Humean empiricist view that humans observe sequence of events, not cause and effect—as causality and causal mechanisms are unobservable—DN model neglects causality beyond mere constant conjunction, first event A and then always event B.[23] Hempel s explication of DN model held natural laws—empirically confirmed regularities—as satisfactory and, if formulated realistically, approximating causal explanation.[25] In later articles, Hempel defended DN model and proposed a probabilistic explanation, inductive-statistical model (IS model).[25] DN model and IS model together form covering law model,[25] as named by a critic, William Dray.[29] (Derivation of statistical laws from other statistical laws goes to deductive-statistical model (DS model).)[30] Georg Hendrik von Wright, another critic, named it subsumption theory,[31] fitting the ambition of theory reduction. Unity of science[edit] Logical positivists were generally committed to "Unified Science", and sought a common language or, in Neurath s phrase, a "universal slang" whereby which all scientific propositions could be expressed.[32] The adequacy of proposals or fragments of proposals for such a language was often asserted on the basis of various "reductions" or "explications" of the terms of one special science to the terms of another, putatively more fundamental. Sometimes these reductions consisted of set-theoretic manipulations of a few logically primitive concepts (as in Carnap s Logical Structure of the World (1928)). Sometimes, these reductions consisted of allegedly analytic or a priori deductive relationships (as in Carnap s "Testability and meaning"). A number of publications over a period of thirty years would attempt to elucidate this concept. Theory reduction[edit] As in Comptean positivism s envisioned unity of science, neopositivists aimed to network all special sciences through the covering law model of scientific explanation. And ultimately, by supplying boundary conditions and supplying bridge laws within the covering law model, all the special sciences laws would reduce to fundamental physics, the fundamental science. Critics[edit] After the Second World War s close in 1945, key tenets of logical positivism, including its atomistic philosophy of science, the verifiability principle, and the fact/value gap, drew escalated criticism. It was clear that empirical claims cannot be verified to be universally true.[12] Thus, as initially stated, the verifiability criterion made universal statements meaningless, and even made statements beyond empiricism for technological but not conceptual reasons meaningless, which would pose significant problems for science.[20][33][34] These problems were recognized within the movement, which hosted attempted solutions—Carnap s move to confirmation, Ayer s acceptance of weak verification—but the program drew sustained criticism from a number of directions by the 1950s. Even philosophers disagreeing among themselves on which direction general epistemology ought to take, as well as on philosophy of science, agreed that the logical empiricist program was untenable, and it became viewed as selfcontradictory.[35] The verifiability criterion of meaning was itself unverified.[35] Notable critics were Nelson Goodman, Willard Van Orman Quine, Norwood Hanson, Karl Popper, Thomas Kuhn, J L Austin, Peter Strawson, Hilary Putnam, Ludwig von Mises, and Richard Rorty. Quine[edit] Although quite empiricist, American logician Willard Van Orman Quine published the 1951 paper "Two dogmas of empiricism",[36] which challenged conventional empiricist presumptions. Quine attacked the analytic/synthetic division, which the verificationist program had been hinged upon in order to entail, by consequence of Hume s fork, both necessity and apriocity. Quine s ontological relativity explained that every term in any statement has its meaning contingent on a vast network of knowledge and belief, the speaker s conception of the entire world. Quine later proposed naturalized epistemology. Hanson[edit] In 1958, Norwood Hanson s Patterns of Discovery undermined the division of observation versus theory,[37] as one can predict, collect, prioritize, and assess data only via some horizon of expectation set by a theory. Thus, any dataset—the direct observations, the scientific facts—is laden with theory. Popper[edit] An early, tenacious critic was Karl Popper whose 1934 book Logik der Forschung, arriving in English in 1959 as The Logic of Scientific Discovery, directly answered verificationism. Popper heeded the problem of induction as rendering empirical verification logically impossible.[38] And the deductive fallacy of affirming the consequent reveals any phenomenon s capacity to host over one logically possible explanation. Accepting scientific method as hypotheticodeduction, whose inference form is denying the consequent, Popper finds scientific method unable to proceed without falsifiable predictions. Popper thus identifies falsifiability to demarcate not meaningful from meaningless but simply scientific from unscientific—a label not in itself unfavorable. Popper finds virtue in metaphysics, required to develop new scientific theories. And an unfalsifiable—thus unscientific, perhaps metaphysical—concept in one era can later, through evolving knowledge or technology, become falsifiable, thus scientific. Popper also found science s quest for truth to rest on values. Popper disparages the pseudoscientific, which occurs when an unscientific theory is proclaimed true and coupled with seemingly scientific method by "testing" the unfalsifiable theory—whose predictions are confirmed by necessity—or when a scientific theory s falsifiable predictions are strongly falsified but the theory is persistently protected by "immunizing stratagems", such as the appendage of ad hoc clauses saving the theory or the recourse to increasingly speculative hypotheses shielding the theory. Popper s scientific epistemology is falsificationism, which finds that no number, degree, and variety of empirical successes can either verify or confirm scientific theory. Falsificationism finds science s aim as corroboration of scientific theory, which strives for scientific realism but accepts the maximal status of strongly corroborated verisimilitude ("truthlikeness"). Explicitly denying the positivist view that all knowledge is scientific, Popper developed the general epistemology critical rationalism, which finds human knowledge to evolve by conjectures and refutations. Popper thus acknowledged the value of the positivist movement, driving evolution of human understanding, but claimed that he had "killed positivism". Kuhn[edit] With his landmark, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Thomas Kuhn critically destabilized the verificationist program, which was presumed to call for foundationalism. (Actually, even in the 1930s, Otto Neurath had argued for nonfoundationalism via coherentism by likening science to a boat that scientists must rebuild at sea[citation needed].) Although Kuhn s thesis itself was attacked even by opponents of neopositivism, in the 1970 postscript to Structure, Kuhn asserted, at least, that there was no algorithm to science—and, on that, even most of Kuhn s critics agreed. Powerful and persuasive, Kuhn s book, unlike the vocabulary and symbols of logic s formal language, was written in natural language open to the laypersons.[39] Ironically, Kuhn s book was first published in a volume of Encyclopedia of Unified Science—a project begun by logical positivists—and some sense unified science, indeed, but by bringing it into the realm of historical and social assessment, rather than fitting it to the model of physics.[39] Kuhn s ideas were rapidly adopted by scholars in disciplines well outside natural sciences,[39] and, as logical empiricists were extremely influential in the social sciences,[22] ushered academia into postpositivism or postempiricism.[39] Putnam[edit] The "received view" operates on the correspondence rule that states, "The observational terms are taken as referring to specified phenomena or phenomenal properties, and the only interpretation given to the theoretical terms is their explicit definition provided by the correspondence rules".[11] According to Hilary Putnam, a former student of Reichenbach and of Carnap, the dichotomy of observational terms versus theoretical terms introduced a problem within scientific discussion that was nonexistent until this dichotomy was stated by logical positivists.[40] Putnam s four objections Something is referred to as "observational" if it is observable directly with our senses. Then an observation term cannot be applied to something unobservable. If this is the case, there are no observation terms. With Carnap s classification, some unobservable terms are not even theoretical and belong to neither observation terms nor theoretical terms. Some theoretical terms refer primarily to observation terms. Reports of observation terms frequently contain theoretical terms. A scientific theory may not contain any theoretical terms (an example of this is Darwin s original theory of evolution). Putman also alleged that positivism was actually a form of metaphysical idealism by its rejecting scientific theory s ability to garner knowledge about nature s unobservable aspects. With his "no miracles" argument, posed in 1974, Putnam asserted scientific realism, the stance that science achieves true—or approximately true—knowledge of the world as it exists independently of humans sensory experience. In this, Putnam opposed not only the positivism but other instrumentalism—whereby scientific theory as but a human tool to predict human observations—filling the void left by positivism s decline. Retrospect[edit] By the late 1960s, the neopositivist movement had clearly run its course.[41] Interviewed in the late 1970s, A J Ayer supposed that "the most important" defect "was that nearly all of it was false".[42][43] Although logical positivism tends to be recalled as a pillar of scientism,[44] Carl Hempel was key in establishing the philosophy subdiscipline philosophy of science[13] where Thomas Kuhn and Karl Popper brought in the era postpositivism.[39] John Passmore found logical positivism to be "dead, or as dead as a philosophical movement ever becomes".[42] Logical positivism s fall reopened debate over the metaphysical merit of scientific theory, whether it can offer knowledge of the world beyond human experience (scientific realism) versus whether it is but a human tool to predict human experience (instrumentalism).[45][46] Meanwhile, it became popular among philosophers to rehash the faults and failures of logical positivism without investigation of it.[47] Thereby, logical positivism has been generally misrepresented, sometimes severely.[48] Arguing for their own views, often framed versus logical positivism, many philosophers have reduced logical positivism to simplisms and stereotypes, especially the notion of logical positivism as a type of foundationalism.[48] In any event, the movement helped anchor analytic philosophy in the Anglosphere, and returned Britain to empiricism. Minus logical positivists, tremendously influential outside philosophy, especially in psychology and social sciences, intellectual life of the 20th century would be unrecognizable.[13] Footnotes[edit] ^ Jump up to a b c Michael Friedman, Reconsidering Logical Positivism (New York Cambridge University Press, 1999), p xiv. Jump up ^ See "Vienna Circle" in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Jump up ^ Smith, L.D. (1986). Behaviorism and Logical Positivism A Reassessment of the Alliance. Stanford University Press. p. 314. ISBN 9780804713016. LCCN 85030366. The secondary and historical literature on logical positivism affords substantial grounds for concluding that logical positivism failed to solve many of the central problems it generated for itself. Prominent among the unsolved problems was the failure to find an acceptable statement of the verifiability (later confirmability) criterion of meaningfulness. Until a competing tradition emerged (about the late 1950 s), the problems of logical positivism continued to be attacked from within that tradition. But as the new tradition in the philosophy of science began to demonstrate its effectiveness—by dissolving and rephrasing old problems as well as by generating new ones—philosophers began to shift allegiances to the new tradition, even though that tradition has yet to receive a canonical formulation. Jump up ^ Bunge, M.A. (1996). Finding Philosophy in Social Science. Yale University Press. p. 317. ISBN 9780300066067. LCCN lc96004399. To conclude, logical positivism was progressive compared with the classical positivism of Ptolemy, Hume, d Alembert, Compte, John Stuart Mill, and Ernst Mach. It was even more so by comparison with its contemporary rivals—neo-Thomisism, neo-Kantianism, intuitionism, dialectical materialism, phenomenology, and existentialism. However, neo-positivism failed dismally to give a faithful account of science, whether natural or social. It failed because it remained anchored to sense-data and to a phenomenalist metaphysics, overrated the power of induction and underrated that of hypothesis, and denounced realism and materialism as metaphysical nonsense. Although it has never been practiced consistently in the advanced natural sciences and has been criticized by many philosophers, notably Popper (1959 [1935], 1963), logical positivism remains the tacit philosophy of many scientists. Regrettably, the anti-positivism fashionable in the metatheory of social science is often nothing but an excuse for sloppiness and wild speculation. Jump up ^ "Popper, Falsifiability, and the Failure of Positivism". 7 August 2000. Retrieved 30 June 2012. The upshot is that the positivists seem caught between insisting on the V.C. [Verifiability Criterion]—but for no defensible reason—or admitting that the V.C. requires a background language, etc., which opens the door to relativism, etc. In light of this dilemma, many folk—especially following Popper s "last-ditch" effort to "save" empiricism/positivism/realism with the falsifiability criterion—have agreed that positivism is a dead-end. Jump up ^ For example, compare "Proposition 4.024" of Tractatus, asserting that we understand a proposition when we know the outcome if it is true, with Schlick s asserting, "To state the circumstances under which a proposition is true is the same as stating its meaning". Jump up ^ "Positivismus und realismus", Erkenntnis 3 1–31, English trans in Sarkar, Sahotra, ed, Logical Empiricism at its Peak Schlick, Carnap, and Neurath (New York Garland Publishing, 1996), p 38. Jump up ^ For summary of the effect of Tractatus on logical positivists, see the Entwicklung der Thesen des "Wiener Kreises". ^ Jump up to a b c d e Jaako Hintikka, "Logicism", in Andrew D Irvine, ed, Philosophy of Mathematics (Burlington MA North Holland, 2009), pp 283–84. Jump up ^ See Rudolf Carnap, "The elimination Of metaphysics through logical analysis of language", Erkenntnis, 1932;2, reprinted in Logical Positivism, Alfred Jules Ayer, ed, (New York Free Press, 1959), pp 60–81. ^ Jump up to a b Frederick Suppe, "The positivist model of scientific theories", in Scientific Inquiry, Robert Klee, ed, (New York Oxford University Press, 1999), pp 16-24. ^ Jump up to a b c d e f g h i j Sarkar, S; Pfeifer, J (2005). The Philosophy of Science An Encyclopedia 1. Taylor Francis. p. 83. ISBN 9780415939270. ^ Jump up to a b c d e f g h Friedman, Reconsidering Logical Positivism (Cambridge U P, 1999), p xii. ^ Jump up to a b c d Antony G Flew, A Dictionary of Philosophy, rev 2nd edn (New York St Martin s Press, 1984), "Hume s fork", p 156. Jump up ^ Helen B Mitchell, Roots of Wisdom A Tapestry of Philosophical Traditions A Tapestry of Philosophical Traditions, 6th edn (Boston Wadsworth, 2011), "Hume s fork and logical positivism", pp 249-50. Jump up ^ For a classic survey of other versions of verificationism, see Carl G Hempel, "Problems and changes in the empiricist criterion of meaning", Revue Internationale de Philosophie, 1950;41 41-63. Jump up ^ See Moritz Schlick, "The future Of philosophy", in The Linguistic Turn, Richard Rorty, ed, (Chicago University of Chicago Press, 1992), pp 43-53. Jump up ^ Examples of these different views can be found in Scheffler s Anatomy of Inquiry, Ayer s Language, Truth, and Logic, Schlick s "Positivism and realism" (reprinted in Sarkar 1996 and Ayer 1959), and Carnap s Philosophy and Logical Syntax. ^ Jump up to a b Mauro Murzi "Rudolf Carnap (1891—1970)", Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 12 Apr 2001. ^ Jump up to a b Fetzer, James (2012). Edward N. Zalta, ed. "Carl Hempel". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2012 ed.). It would fall to Hempel to become perhaps the most astute critic of that movement and to contribute to its refinement as logical empiricism... Hempel himself attained a certain degree of prominence as a critic of this movement... The analytic/synthetic distinction and the observational/theoretical distinction were tied together by the verifiability criterion of meaningfulness... By this standard, sentences that are non-analytic but also non-verifiable, including various theological or metaphysical assertions concerning God or The Absolute, qualify as cognitively meaningless. This was viewed as a desirable result. But, as Hempel would demonstrate, its scope was far too sweeping, since it also rendered meaningless the distinctively scientific assertions made by laws and theories... The analytic/synthetic distinction took a decided hit when the noted logician, Willard van Orman Quine, published "Two dogmas of empiricism" (1953), challenging its adequacy... While the analytic/synthetic distinction appears to be justifiable in modeling important properties of languages, the observational/theoretical distinction does not fare equally well. Within logical positivism, observation language was assumed to consist of names and predicates whose applicability or not can be ascertained, under suitable conditions, by means of direct observation... Karl Popper (1965, 1968), however, would carry the argument in a different direction by looking at the ontic nature of properties... Hempel (1950, 1951), meanwhile, demonstrated that the verifiability criterion could not be sustained. Since it restricts empirical knowledge to observation sentences and their deductive consequences, scientific theories are reduced to logical constructions from observables. In a series of studies about cognitive significance and empirical testability, he demonstrated that the verifiability criterion implies that existential generalizations are meaningful, but that universal generalizations are not, even though they include general laws, the principal objects of scientific discovery. Hypotheses about relative frequencies in finite sequences are meaningful, but hypotheses concerning limits in infinite sequences are not. The verifiability criterion thus imposed a standard that was too strong to accommodate the characteristic claims of science and was not justifiable... Both theoretical and dispositional predicates, which refer to non-observables, posed serious problems for the positivist position, since the verifiability criterion implies they must be reducible to observables or are empirically meaningless... The need to dismantle the verifiability criterion of meaningfulness together with the demise of the observational/theoretical distinction meant that logical positivism no longer represented a rationally defensible position. At least two of its defining tenets had been shown to be without merit. Since most philosophers believed that Quine had shown the analytic/synthetic distinction was also untenable, moreover, many concluded that the enterprise had been a total failure. Among the important benefits of Hempel s critique, however, was the production of more general and flexible criteria of cognitive significance... Hempel suggested multiple criteria for assessing the cognitive significance of different theoretical systems, where significance is not categorical but rather a matter of degree... The elegance of Hempel s study laid to rest any lingering aspirations for simple criteria of cognitive significance and signaled the demise of logical positivism as a philosophical movement. Precisely what remained, however, was in doubt. Presumably, anyone who rejected one or more of the three principles defining positivism—the analytic/synthetic distinction, the observational/theoretical distinction, and the verifiability criterion of significance—was not a logical positivist. The precise outlines of its philosophical successor, which would be known as "logical empiricism", were not entirely evident. Perhaps this study came the closest to defining its intellectual core. Those who accepted Hempel s four criteria and viewed cognitive significance as a matter of degree were members, at least in spirit. But some new problems were beginning to surface with respect to Hempel s covering-law explication of explanation and old problems remained from his studies of induction, the most remarkable of which was known as "the paradox of confirmation". ^ Jump up to a b Ayer, Language, Truth and Logic, 1946, p 50–51. ^ Jump up to a b Novick, That Noble Dream (Cambridge U P, 1988), p 546. ^ Jump up to a b James Woodward, "Scientific explanation"—sec 1 "Background and introduction", in Zalta EN, ed,The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Winter 2011 edn ^ Jump up to a b James Woodward, "Scientific explanation"—Article overview, Zalta EN, ed, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Winter 2011 edn ^ Jump up to a b c d e f Suppe, Structure of Scientific Theories (U Illinois P, 1977), pp 619–21. Jump up ^ Eleonora Montuschi, Objects in Social Science (London New York Continuum, 2003), pp 61–62. Jump up ^ Bechtel, Philosophy of Science (Lawrence Erlbaum, 1988), p 25. Jump up ^ Bechtel, Philosophy of Science (Lawrence Erlbaum, 1988), pp 27–28. Jump up ^ Georg Hendrik von Wright, Explanation and Understanding (Ithaca NY Cornell University Press, 1971), p 11. Jump up ^ Stuart Glennan, p 276, in Sarkar S Pfeifer J, eds, The Philosophy of Science An Encyclopedia, Volume 1 A–M (New York Routledge, 2006). Jump up ^ Manfred Riedel, pp 3–4, in Manninen J Tuomela R, eds, Essays on Explanation and Understanding Studies in the Foundation of Humanities and Social Sciences (Dordrecht D Reidel Publishing, 1976). Jump up ^ For a review of "unity of science" to, see Gregory Frost-Arnold, "The large-scale structure of logical empiricism Unity of science and the rejection of metaphysics". Jump up ^ John Vicker (2011). Edward N Zalta, ed. "The problem of induction". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2011 ed.). This initial formulation of the criterion was soon seen to be too strong; it counted as meaningless not only metaphysical statements but also statements that are clearly empirically meaningful, such as that all copper conducts electricity and, indeed, any universally quantified statement of infinite scope, as well as statements that were at the time beyond the reach of experience for technical, and not conceptual, reasons, such as that there are mountains on the back side of the moon. These difficulties led to modification of the criterion The latter to allow empirical verification if not in fact then at least in principle, the former to soften verification to empirical confirmation. Jump up ^ Uebel, Thomas (2008). Edward N. Zalta, ed. "Vienna Circle". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2008 ed.). What Carnap later called the "liberalization of empiricism" was underway and different camps became discernible within the Circle... In the first place, this liberalization meant the accommodation of universally quantified statements and the return, as it were, to salient aspects of Carnap s 1928 conception. Everybody had noted that the Wittgensteinian verificationist criterion rendered universally quantified statements meaningless. Schlick (1931) thus followed Wittgenstein s own suggestion to treat them instead as representing rules for the formation of verifiable singular statements. (His abandonment of conclusive verifiability is indicated only in Schlick 1936a.) A second element that began to do so soon was the recognition of the problem of the irreducibility of disposition terms to observation terms... A third element was that disagreement arose as to whether the in-principle verifiability or support turned on what was merely logically possible or on what was nomologically possible, as a matter of physical law etc. A fourth element, finally, was that differences emerged as to whether the criterion of significance was to apply to all languages or whether it was to apply primarily to constructed, formal languages. Schlick retained the focus on logical possibility and natural languages throughout, but Carnap had firmly settled his focus on nomological possibility and constructed languages by the mid-thirties. Concerned with natural language, Schlick (1932, 1936a) deemed all statements meaningful for which it was logically possible to conceive of a procedure of verification; concerned with constructed languages only, Carnap (1936-37) deemed meaningful only statements for whom it was nomologically possible to conceive of a procedure of confirmation of disconfirmation. Many of these issues were openly discussed at the Paris congress in 1935. Already in 1932 Carnap had sought to sharpen his previous criterion by stipulating that those statements were meaningful that were syntactically well-formed and whose non-logical terms were reducible to terms occurring in the basic observational evidence statements of science. While Carnap s focus on the reduction of descriptive terms allows for the conclusive verification of some statements, his criterion also allowed universally quantified statements to be meaningful, provided they were syntactically and terminologically correct (1932a, §2). It was not until one of his Paris addresses, however, that Carnap officially declared the meaning criterion to be mere confirmability. Carnap s new criterion required neither verification nor falsification but only partial testability so as now to include not only universal statements but also the disposition statements of science... Though plausible initially, the device of introducing non-observational terms in this way gave rise to a number of difficulties which impugned the supposedly clear distinctions between logical and empirical matters and analytic and synthetic statements (Hempel 1951). Independently, Carnap himself (1939) soon gave up the hope that all theoretical terms of science could be related to an observational base by such reduction chains. This admission raised a serious problem for the formulation of a meaning criterion how was one to rule out unwanted metaphysical claims while admitting as significant highly abstract scientific claims? ^ Jump up to a b Hilary Putnam (1985). Philosophical Papers Volume 3, Realism and Reason. Philosophical Papers. Cambridge University Press. p. 184. ISBN 9780521313940. LCCN lc82012903. Jump up ^ W V O Quine, "Two dogmas of empiricism", Philosophical Review 1951;60 20-43, collected in Quine, From a Logical Point of View (Cambridge MA Harvard University Press, 1953). Jump up ^ Novick, That Noble Dream (Cambridge U P, 1988), p 527. Jump up ^ Popper then denies that science requires inductive inference or that it actually exists, although most philosophers believe it exists and that science requires it [Samir Okasha, The Philosophy of Science A Very Short Introduction (NY OUP, 2002), p 23]. ^ Jump up to a b c d e Novick, That Noble Dream (Cambridge U P, 1988), pp 526-27. Jump up ^ Hilary Putnam, "Problems with the observational/theoretical distinction", in Scientific Inquiry, Robert Klee, ed (New York, USA Oxford University Press, 1999), pp 25-29. Jump up ^ Nicholas G Fotion (1995). Ted Honderich, ed. The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford Oxford University Press. p. 508. ISBN 0-19-866132-0. ^ Jump up to a b Hanfling, Oswald (2003). "Logical Positivism". Routledge History of Philosophy. Routledge. pp. 193f. Jump up ^ "Ayer on Logical Positivism Section 4". 6 30. Jump up ^ Stahl et al, Webs of Reality (Rutgers U P, 2002), p 180. Jump up ^ Hilary Putnam, "What is realism?", in Jarrett Leplin, ed, Scientific Realism (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London University of California Press, 1984), p 140. Jump up ^ Ruth Lane, "Positivism, scientific realism and political science Recent developments in the philosophy of science", Journal of Theoretical Politics, 1996 Jul8(3) 361-82, abstract. Jump up ^ Friedman, Reconsidering Logical Positivism (Cambridge, 1999), p 1. ^ Jump up to a b Friedman, Reconsidering Logical Positivism (Cambridge, 1999), p 2.